Editing Etruscan numerals (section)

==Number words==
The paucity of material severely limits current knowledge about the Etruscan words for numbers, and their grammar. For example, the assumed word for 9, ''nurφ'', is known from a single inscription.<ref name=yats2006/>

Nevertheless, except for the identities of 4 and 6, there is general agreement among Etruscologists about the words for numbers up to 100. The table below gives the transliteration (one letter for each Etruscan letter) and an approximate phonetic pronunciation.

Words marked by asterisks are not attested, but are hypothesized based on known numbers. A hyphen indicates that only derivations of the numeral are attested.

{|class="wikitable"
|+Etruscan numerals
|-
!Value
!Decimal<br>interpretation
!Duodecimal<br>interpretation
|-
|1
| colspan=2| '''θu''' [tʰu] ~ '''θun''' ~ '''tu''' ~ '''tun'''
|-
|2
| colspan=2| '''zal''' [t͡sal]
|-
|3
| colspan=2| '''ci''' [ki] ~ '''ki''' (~ '''ψi'''?)
|-
|4
|'''śa''' [ʃa] ~ '''sa''' or '''huθ''' [hutʰ] ~ '''hut'''
|'''huθ''' [hutʰ] ~ '''hut'''
|-
|5
| colspan=2| '''maψ''' [makʰ] ~ '''*maψv-'''
|-
|6
|'''huθ''' [hutʰ] ~ '''hut''' or '''śa''' [ʃa] ~ '''sa'''
|'''śa''' [ʃa] ~ '''sa'''
|-
|7
| colspan=2| '''śemφ''' [ʃempʰ]
|-
|8
| colspan=2| '''*cezp''' [ket͡sp]
|-
|9
| colspan=2| '''nurφ-''' [nurpʰ]
|-
|10
|'''śar''' [ʃar] ~ '''zar''' [t͡sar]
|'''halψ''' [halkʰ]
|-
|11
|'''*θuśar''' [tʰuʃar] "one-ten"
| ?
|-
|12
|'''*zalśar''' [t͡salʃar] "two-ten"
|'''śar''' [ʃar] ~ '''zar''' [t͡sar] "twelve"
|-
|13
|'''ci- śar-''' [kiʃar] "three-ten"
| '''*θuśar'''?
|-
|14
|'''*śaśar''' [ʃaʃar] or <br>'''huθzar''' [hutʰt͡sar] "four-ten" 
| '''*zalśar'''?
|-
|15
|'''*maψśar''' [makʰʃar] "five-ten"
|'''ci- śar-''' "three-twelve"
|-
|16
|'''huθzar-''' [hutʰt͡sar] or <br>'''*śaśar''' [ʃaʃar] "six-ten"
|'''huθzar-''' [hutʰt͡sar] "four-twelve"
|-
|17
| colspan=2| '''ciem zaθrum''' [ki-em t͡satʰum] "three from twenty"
|-
|18
| colspan=2| '''eslem zaθrum''' [esl-em t͡satʰum] "two from twenty"
|-
|19
| colspan=2| '''θunem zaθrum''' [tʰun-em t͡satʰum] "one from twenty"
|-
|20
| colspan=2| '''zaθrum''' [t͡satʰrum] "tw-?"
|-
|30
| colspan=2| '''cealψ''' [t͡sealkʰ] "three-ty/ten"
|-
|40
|'''śealψ''' [ʃealkʰ] or <br>'''*huθalψ''' [hutʰalkʰ] "four-ty"
|'''*huθalψ-''' "four-ten"
|-
|50
| colspan=2| '''muvalψ''' [muwalkʰ] "five-ty/ten"
|-
|60
|'''*huθalψ''' [hutʰalkʰ] or <br>'''śealψ''' [ʃealkʰ] "six-ty"
|'''śealψ''' [ʃealkʰ] "six-ten"
|-
|70
| colspan=2| '''śemφalψ''' [ʃempʰalkʰ] "seven-ty/ten"
|-
|80
| colspan=2| '''cezpalψ''' [ket͡spalkʰ] "eight-ty/ten"
|-
|90
| colspan=2| '''*nurφalψ''' [nurpʰalkʰ] "nine-ty/ten"
|-
|100
| colspan=2| '''chimth''' [ʃimt] or <br>'''ximth''' [ʃimt] "one hundred"
|}

The phonetic notation [pʰ] (φ), [tʰ] (θ) and [kʰ] (ψ) denotes [[aspirated consonant|aspirated stops]], which in Etruscan are distinguished from non-aspirated [p], [t], [k].

Note that the numbers 17 to 19 are written as three, two and one from twenty. Similarly ''ciem cealψ'' "three from thirty" (27) etc.

The numbers could be inflected for [[grammatical case|case]]. For example, in the Etruscan sentence {{Transliteration|ett|lupu avils esals cezpalψals}} "has died [at the age] of two eighty", {{Transliteration|ett|esals}} is the genitive of ''zal'' (2) and ''cezpalψals'' is the genitive of ''cezpalψ'' (80).<ref name=yats2006/>

===The 4 vs. 6 dispute===
There has been a longstanding controversy about the assignment of 4 and 6. All Etruscologists agree that the words are ''huθ'' (''hut<sup>h</sup>'') and ''śa'' (''sha''). The disagreement is about which is which.

Until recently, it was generally accepted, based on archaeological evidence, that 4 was ''huθ'' and 6 was ''śa''. For instance, in the frescos of the Tomb of the Charons in the [[Monterozzi necropolis]], on a hill east of [[Tarquinia]], four [[Charon (mythology)|Charon]]s are represented, each one accompanied by an inscription: Next to the fourth Charon, the text reads ''charun huths'' ("the fourth Charon"). In the same necropolis, in the Tomb of the Anina, which contains six burial places, an inscription reads: ''sa suthi cherichunce'', which has been translated as: "he built six tombs/sepulchres".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pallottino, M. |title=Un gruppo di nuove iscrizioni tarquiniesi e il problema dei numerali etruschi |journal=Studi Etruschi |year=1964 |pages=121–122}}{{full citation needed|reason=missing volume, issue, & publication month|date=March 2020}}</ref>

However, that assignment was challenged in 2011 by a thorough analysis of 91&nbsp;Etruscan gambling [[dice]], from many different ages and locations, with numbers marked by dots ("pips"); and a lone pair of dice (the "[[Tuscanian dice]]" or "dice of [[Toscanella]]") with the numbers written out as words.<ref name=arti2011>{{cite journal |author1=Artioli, G. |author2=Nociti, V. |author3=Angelini, I. |title=Gambling with Etruscan Dice: A tale of numbers and letters |journal=Archaeometry |volume=53 |issue=5 |date=October 2011 |pages=1031–1043 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4754.2011.00596.x}}</ref>

Mathematically, there are 30&nbsp;ways to place the numbers 1-6 on the faces of a die; or 15 if one counts together numberings that are mirror images of each other. These 15&nbsp;possibilities are identified by the pairs of numbers that occur on opposite faces: 
: (1-2, 3-4, 5-6), (1-2, 3-5, 4-6), (1-2, 3-6, 4-5), 
: (1-3, 2-4, 5-6), (1-3, 2-5, 4-6), (1-3, 2-6, 4-5), 
: (1-4, 2-3, 5-6), (1-4, 2-5, 3-6), (1-4, 2-6, 3-5),
: (1-5, 2-3, 4-6), (1-5, 2-4, 3-6), (1-5, 2-6, 3-4),
: (1-6, 2-3, 4-5), (1-6, 2-4, 3-5), (1-6, 2-5, 3-4)
For unknown reasons, Roman dice generally used the last pattern, (1-6, 2-5, 3-4), in which every pair of opposite faces adds to 7; a tradition that continued in Europe to the present day, and has become the standard all over the world. However, among the 91&nbsp;Etruscan dice from many different locations, those from 500&nbsp;BCE or earlier used only the first pattern, (1-2, 3-4, 5-6), in which the opposite faces differ by 1. Those from 350&nbsp;BCE and later, on the other hand, used the Roman (1-6, 2-5, 3-4) pattern. Between 500 and 350&nbsp;BCE, the latter gradually replaced the former at all Etruscan sites covered.<ref name=arti2011/>

On the Tuscany dice, the opposite faces carry the words (''θu''–''huθ'', ''zal''–''maψ'', ''ci''-''śa''). In both the "old" and "new" patterns, however, the values&nbsp;3 and 4 lie on opposite faces. Thus, since ''ci'' was known to be 3, the researchers concluded that ''śa'' must be 4; and since there is no dissent about the words for 1, 2, and 5, ''huθ'' had to be 6.<ref name=arti2011/>

That assignment would imply that the Tuscany dice follow the pattern (1-6, 2-5, 3-4); that is, they are of the "late" (Roman) type.  The researchers claim that this assignment is consistent with the shape of the letters, that indicate a date later than 400&nbsp;BCE.<ref name=arti2011/>

The opposite assignment (4 = ''huθ'', 6 = ''śa'') would make the pattern of the Tuscany dice be (1-4, 2-5, 3-6); that is, with numbers on opposite faces being 3&nbsp;apart. No other Etruscan die has been found with that pattern (or with words instead of pips, for that matter).

===Duodecimal hypothesis===

In 2006, S. A. Yatsemirsky presented evidence that ''zar'' or ''śar'' meant '12' (cf. ''zal'' '2' and ''zaθrum'' '20') while ''halψ'' meant '10'. According to his interpretation, the attested form ''huθzar'' could only mean 'sixteen', and ''huθ'' must therefore mean 'four'. The form ''śealψ'' would therefore be '60', and is presumably cognate with [[Lemnian language|Lemnian]] ''sialψv-eiś'' '60'.<ref name=yats2006>[http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/numeng.pdf Etruscan numerals: problems and results of research] (PDF), S. A. Yatsemirsky</ref>

===Indo-European hypothesis===
There is a debate that has been carried out about a possible [[Proto-Indo-European numerals|Indo-European]] origin of the Etruscan number words.

[[Larissa Bonfante|L. Bonfante]] (1990) claimed that what the numerals "show, beyond any shadow of a doubt, is the non-Indo-European nature of the Etruscan language".<ref>[[Larissa Bonfante|Bonfante, L.]],''Etruscan'', University of California Press (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1990), p. 22.</ref>

Conversely, other scholars, including [[Francisco Rodríguez Adrados|F. Adrados]], A. Carnoy, M. Durante, V. Georgiev, A. Morandi and M. Pittau, have posited a "perfect fit" between the ten Etruscan numerals and words in various Indo-European languages (not always numerical or with any apparent connection), such as ''θu'' 'one' and Sanskrit ''tvad'' 'thou', ''zal'' 'two' and German ''zwei'' 'two', ''ci'' 'three' and Iranian ''sih'' 'three' (from [[proto-Indo-European]] *tréyes, which is not a match to Etruscan [ki]), ''huθ'' 'four' and Latin ''quattuor'' 'four', etc.<ref>Carnoy A., La langue étrusque et ses origines, ''L'Antiquité Classique'', 21 (1952), p. 326. ([http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/antiq_0770-2817_1952_num_21_2_3451])</ref><ref>Morandi, A., ''Nuovi lineamenti di lingua etrusca'', Erre Emme (Roma, 1991), chapter IV.</ref><ref>Pittau, M., "I numerali Etruschi", ''Atti del Sodalizio Glottologico Milanese'', vol. XXXV–XXXVI, 1994/1995 (1996), pp. 95–105. ([http://www.pittau.it/Etrusco/Studi/dadi.html])</ref>