Editing Fire blight (section)

==Management==
In an attempt to prevent new infections, plants have been sprayed with either [[streptomycin]], [[Copper(II) sulfate|copper sulfate]] or both in some parts of the world, such as the USA, but has been found to be effective only for slowing or temporarily stopping growth in already diseased plants.<ref name="Iljon Stirling Smith 2012">{{cite book |last1=Iljon |first1=Tzvia |last2=Stirling |first2=Jenna |last3=Smith |first3=Robert J. |chapter=A mathematical model describing an outbreak of fire blight |pages=91–104 |chapter-url=https://mysite.science.uottawa.ca/rsmith43/FireBlight.pdf |editor1-first=Steady |editor1-last=Mushayabasa |editor2-first=Claver P. |editor2-last=Bhunu |title=Understanding the Dynamics of Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases Using Mathematical Models |year=2012 |isbn=978-81-7895-549-0}}</ref> The widespread use of streptomycin spray has led to [[antibiotic resistance]] in some areas, such as California and Washington. Certain [[biological control]]s consisting of beneficial bacteria or yeast can also prevent fire blight from infecting new trees. The only effective treatment for plants already infected is to prune off the affected branches and remove them from the area.<ref name="Iljon Stirling Smith 2012"/> Plants or trees should be inspected routinely for the appearance of new infections. The rest of the plant can be saved if the blighted [[wood]] is removed before the infection spreads to the roots.<ref name="uga">{{cite web |url=http://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.cfm?number=C871 |title=Fireblight: Symptoms, Causes and Treatment |publisher=University of Georgia |access-date=November 13, 2014}}</ref> There is no known cure; prevention is the key.<ref name="colost">{{cite web |url=http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/garden/02907.html |title=Fire Blight |publisher=Colorado State University |access-date=November 13, 2014 |archive-date=October 21, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021170506/http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/garden/02907.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Methods to predict the likelihood of an outbreak so that control measures can be best targeted, were introduced from the 1980s following the work of [[Eve Billings]] at [[East Malling Research Station]], UK. These were based on temperature and rainfall, and have been developed further by Billings and others.<ref name="Schouten1991">{{cite thesis |last1=Schouten |first1=Henk J. |title=Studies on fire blight |date=1991 |url=https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wda/abstract/538859}}</ref><ref name="Billing2007">{{cite journal |last1=Billing |first1=Eve |title=Challenges in Adaptation of Plant Disease Warning Systems to New Locations: Re-Appraisal of Billing's Integrated System for Predicting Fire Blight in a Warm Dry Environment |journal=Phytopathology |date=2007 |volume=97 |issue=9 |pages=1036–1039 |doi=10.1094/PHYTO-97-9-1036 |pmid=18944167 |doi-access=}}</ref>

''E. amylovora'' generally needs to be destroyed externally, before it enters plant tissues because once it enters the host, it spreads during the endophytic phase of [[pathogenesis]]. Once this happens external control methods become ineffective. The application of copper and antibiotics to the plant externally is the most effective method of prevention. Currently it has been noted that ''E. amylovora'' has developed a resistance to the antibiotic streptomycin, as do most bacteria able to transfer preferential genes  horizontally from species to species.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/news/080401_mrsa |title=Superbug, super-fast evolution |date=April 2008 |website=evolution.berkeley.edu |access-date=2016-12-12}}</ref>

New research conducted by John C. Wise out of Michigan State University shows that E. amylovora can be controlled with relative efficacy through tree trunk injection of either streptomycin, potassium phosphites (PH), or acibenzolar-S-methyl (ASM). PH and ASM both work through gene inductions of PR-1, PR-2, and PR-8 in the leafy material.<ref name="Wise 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Aćimović |first1=Srđan G. |last2=Zeng |first2=Quan |last3=McGhee |first3=Gayle C. |last4=Sundin |first4=George W. |last5=Wise |first5=John C. |title=Control of fire blight (Erwinia amylovora) on apple trees with trunk-injected plant resistance inducers and antibiotics and assessment of induction of pathogenesis-related protein genes |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=10 February 2015 |volume=6 |page=16 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2015.00016 |pmid=25717330 |pmc=4323746 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Oxytetracycline Hydrochloride (OTC) was also tested and found to greatly reduce the activity of the bacteria within the tree. These new control methods are still being researched and have not been approved for fruit crop production by the EPA.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

[[Sanitary and phytosanitary measures and agreements|Phytosanitary]] measures have been employed as the best sanitary measures against ''E. amylovora'' dispersal. High risk countries are encouraged not to import plants susceptible to the pathogen into their territory because, once the bacteria become established in an area it is nearly impossible to eradicate the disease. Nurseries and orchards in such regions are placed on strict phytosanitary surveillance measures and well-monitored. Imported and infected crops are destroyed as soon as they are noticed since the bacteria spreads very rapidly and eradication methods are usually costly and inefficient.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

Current fire blight strategies depend upon phytosanitary measures to lessen inoculum in the plantation and the utilization of splash medicines to forestall contamination, particularly blossom infections. Decreasing essential inoculum in the plantation by removing remainder holdover cankers during winter pruning is a set up as a basic method of control fire blight disease.<ref name="Fire Blight Management in the Twent">{{cite journal |last1=Norelli |first1=John L. |last2=Jones |first2=Alan L. |last3=Aldwinckle |first3=Herb S. |title=Fire Blight Management in the Twenty-first Century: Using New Technologies that Enhance Host Resistance in Apple |journal=Plant Disease |date=July 2003 |volume=87 |issue=7 |pages=756–765 |doi=10.1094/PDIS.2003.87.7.756 |pmid=30812883 |doi-access=}}</ref>

Slowing the growth rate of the tree will also slow the development of cankers. This may be achieved through reduced watering and fertilising. Controlling insects which cause tree wounds will also decrease secondary infection.<ref name="Johnson"/>

Cultural control options include selecting resistant cultivars, however most commercially successful apple cultivars lack fire blight resistance. Breeders have developed fire blight resistant rootstocks, but resistance is not conferred to the grafted scion.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ohlendorf |first1=Barbara |title=Integrated Pest Management for Apples & Pears |edition=2nd |date=1999 |publisher=University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources |isbn=978-1-879906-42-6}}{{page needed|date=July 2021}}</ref>

[[Prohexadione calcium]] ([[BASF]] brand name Apogee in the United States) is a plant growth inhibitor which is recommended for shoot blight. Since fire blight relies on [[gibberellin]]-dependent growth for much of its own life cycle, prohexadione's gibberellin synthesis inhibition effect also suppresses blight. Not effective in blossom blight.<ref name="Midwest-fruit-pest-man">{{cite web |url=http://ag.purdue.edu/hla/Hort/Documents/ID-465.pdf |title=Midwest Fruit Pest Management Guide 2021-2022 |author1=Midwest Fruit Workers Group | editor1-first=Janna | editor1-last=Beckerman |editor2=([[Purdue University]], Co-Editor-in-Chief) | editor3-first=Lina | editor3-last=Rodriguez-Salamanca |editor4=([[Iowa State University]], Co-Editor-in-Chief) | editor5-first=Kacie | editor5-last=Athey |editor6=([[University of Illinois]], entomology) | editor7-first=Elizabeth | editor7-last=Long |editor8=(Purdue University, entomology) | editor9-first=Ric | editor9-last=Bessin | editor10=([[University of Kentucky]], entomology) | editor11-first=John | editor11-last=Strang |editor12=(University of Kentucky, horticulture) | editor13-first=Christelle | editor13-last=Guedot |editor14=([[University of Wisconsin]], entomology) | editor15-first=Donald | editor15-last=Lewis |editor16=(Iowa State University, entomology) | editor17-first=Melanie | editor17-last=Lewis-Ivey |editor18=([[Ohio State University]], plant pathology) | editor19-first=Celeste | editor19-last=Welty | editor20=(Ohio State University, entomology) |first2=Mohammad |last2=Babadoost |author3=([[University of Illinois]], plant pathology) |first4=Elizabeth |last4=Wahle |author5=(University of Illinois, horticulture) |first6=Joseph |last6=Hannan |author7=(Iowa State University, horticulture) |first8=Rodrigo |last8=Onofre |author9=([[University of Kansas]], plant pathology) | first10=Nicole W. | last10=Gauthier |author11=(University of Kentucky, plant pathology) |first12=Chris |last12=Smigell |author13=(University of Kentucky, plant pathology) |first14=Shawn |last14=Wright |author15=(University of Kentucky, horticulture) |first16=Annie |last16=Klodd |author17=(University of Minnesota, horticulture) |first18=Janna |last18=Beckerman |author19=(Purdue University, plant pathology) | first20=Bruce | last20=Bordelon |author21=(Purdue University, horticulture) |first22=Megan Heller |last22=Haas |author23=(Purdue University, plant pathology) |first24=Stephen |last24=Meyers |author25=(Purdue University, horticulture) |first26=Tristand |last26=Tucker |author27=(Purdue University, horticulture) |first28=Christelle |last28=Guedot |author29=(University of Wisconsin, entomology) | first30=Leslie | last30=Holland |author31=(University of Wisconsin, plant pathology) | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304194347/http://ag.purdue.edu/hla/Hort/Documents/ID-465.pdf | archive-date=2021-03-04}}</ref>