Editing First Great Awakening (section)

==Great Awakening in North America==
{{Details|Evangelicalism in the United States}}

===Early revivals===
In the early 18th century, the [[Thirteen Colonies]] were religiously diverse. In [[New England Colonies|New England]], the [[Congregationalism in the United States|Congregational churches]] were the [[state church|established religion]], whereas in the religiously tolerant [[Middle Colonies]], the [[Quakers]], [[Dutch Reformed]], [[Anglican]], [[Presbyterian]], [[Lutheran]], [[Congregational]], and [[Baptist]] churches all competed with each other on equal terms. In the [[Southern Colonies]], the Anglican Church was officially established, though there were significant numbers of Baptists, Quakers, and Presbyterians.{{Sfn|Smith|2015|p=1}} At the same time, church membership was low because it had failed to keep up with population growth, and the influence of [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] [[rationalism]] was leading many people to turn to [[atheism]], [[Deism]], [[Unitarianism]], and [[Christian Universalism|Universalism]].{{Sfn|Smith|2015|p=2}} The churches in New England had fallen into a "staid and routine formalism in which experiential faith had been a reality to only a scattered few."{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=287}}

In response to these trends, ministers influenced by New England [[Puritanism]], Scots-Irish [[Presbyterianism]], and European [[Pietism]] began calling for a [[Christian revival|revival]] of religion and [[piety]].{{sfnm |1a1=Kidd |1y=2007 |1p=30 |2a1=Smith |2y=2015 |2p=2}} The blending of these three traditions would produce an [[evangelicalism in the United States|evangelical Protestantism]] that placed greater importance "on seasons of revival, or outpourings of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]], and on converted [[sin]]ners experiencing [[Love of God in Christianity|God's love]] personally."{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|p=xiv}} In the 1710s and 1720s, revivals became more frequent among New England Congregationalists.{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|p=8}} These early revivals remained local affairs due to the lack of coverage in [[print media]]. The first revival to receive widespread publicity was that precipitated by an earthquake in 1727. As they began to be publicized more widely, revivals transformed from merely local to regional and transatlantic events.{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|pp=10–11}}

In the 1720s and 1730s, an evangelical party took shape in the Presbyterian churches of the Middle Colonies, led by [[William Tennent]], Sr. He established a seminary called the [[Log College]], where he trained nearly 20 Presbyterian revivalists for the ministry, including his three sons and [[Samuel Blair (pastor)|Samuel Blair]].{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=269}} While pastoring a church in New Jersey, [[Gilbert Tennent]] became acquainted with [[Dutch Reformed]] minister [[Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen]]. Historian Sydney Ahlstrom described Frelinghuysen as "an important herald, if not the father of the Great Awakening".{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=269}} A pietist, Frelinghuysen believed in the necessity of personal conversion and living a holy life. The revivals he led in the Raritan Valley were "forerunners" of the Great Awakening in the Middle Colonies. Under Frelinghuysen's influence, Tennent came to believe that a definite conversion experience followed by assurance of salvation was the key mark of a Christian. By 1729, Tennent was seeing signs of revival in the Presbyterian churches of New Brunswick and Staten Island. At the same time, Gilbert's brothers, William and John, oversaw a revival in Freehold, New Jersey.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=270}}

===Northampton revival===
[[File:JE Sinners in the Hands Monument.jpg|thumb|Monument in [[Enfield, Connecticut]], commemorating the location where ''[[Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God]]'' was preached]]
The most influential evangelical revival was the [[Northampton, Massachusetts|Northampton]] revival of 1734–1735, under the leadership of Congregational minister [[Jonathan Edwards (theologian)|Jonathan Edwards]].{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|p=13}} In the fall of 1734, Edwards preached a sermon series on [[justification by faith alone]], and the community's response was extraordinary. Signs of religious commitment among the [[laity]] increased, especially among the town's young people. Edwards wrote to Boston minister Benjamin Colman that the town "never was so full of Love, nor so full of Joy, nor so full of distress as it has lately been.&nbsp;... I never saw the Christian spirit in Love to Enemies so exemplified, in all my Life as I have seen it within this half-year."{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=282}} The revival ultimately spread to 25 communities in western Massachusetts and central Connecticut until it began to wane in 1737.{{Sfn | Noll | 2004 | pp=76–78}}

At a time when Enlightenment rationalism and [[Arminian]] theology were popular among some Congregational clergy, Edwards held to traditional Calvinist doctrine. He understood conversion to be the experience of moving from [[Spiritual death in Christianity|spiritual deadness]] to [[Fruit of the Holy Spirit#Joy (Greek: chara, Latin: gaudium)|joy]] in the knowledge of one's [[Unconditional election|election]] (that one had been chosen by God for salvation). While a Christian might have several conversion moments as part of this process, Edwards believed there was a single point in time when God [[Regeneration (theology)|regenerated]] an individual, even if the exact moment could not be pinpointed.{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|pp=13–14,15–16}}

The Northampton revival featured instances of what critics called [[enthusiasm]] but what supporters believed were signs of the Holy Spirit. Services became more emotional, and some people had [[Vision (spirituality)|visions]] and [[Mysticism|mystical]] experiences. Edwards cautiously defended these experiences as long as they led individuals to a greater belief in God's glory than in self-glorification. Similar experiences would appear in most of the major revivals of the 18th century.{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|pp=19–20}}

Edwards wrote an account of the Northampton revival, ''[[A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God in the Conversion of Many Hundred Souls in Northampton|A Faithful Narrative]]'', which was published in England through the efforts of prominent evangelicals [[John Guyse]] and [[Isaac Watts]]. The publication of his account made Edwards a celebrity in Britain and influenced the growing revival movement in that nation. ''A Faithful Narrative'' would become a model on which other revivals would be conducted.{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|pp=21–23}}

===Whitefield, Tennent, and Davenport===
George Whitefield first came to America in 1738 to serve at [[Christ Church (Savannah, Georgia)|Christ Church]] in Savannah and found [[Bethesda Orphanage]]. Whitefield returned to the Colonies in November 1739. His first stop was in Philadelphia, where he initially preached at [[Christ Church, Philadelphia|Christ Church]], Philadelphia's Anglican Church, and then preached to a large outdoor crowd from the courthouse steps. He then preached in many Presbyterian churches.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=271}} From Philadelphia, Whitefield traveled to New York and then to the South. In the Middle Colonies, he was popular in the Dutch and German communities as well as among the British. Lutheran pastor [[Henry Muhlenberg]] told of a German woman who heard Whitefield preach and, though she spoke no English, later said she had never before been so edified.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=283}}

In 1740, Whitefield began touring New England. He landed in Newport, Rhode Island, on September 14, 1740, and preached several times in the Anglican church. He then moved on to Boston, Massachusetts, where he spent a week. There were prayers at [[King's Chapel]] (at the time an Anglican church) and preaching at [[Brattle Street Church]] and [[Old South Meeting House|South Church]].{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=284}} On September 20, Whitefield preached at [[First Church in Boston|First Church]] and then outside of it to about 8,000 people who could not gain entrance. The next day, he preached outdoors again to about 15,000 people.{{Sfn|Caldwell|2017|p=14}} On Tuesday, he preached at [[Second Church, Boston|Second Church]] and on Wednesday at [[Harvard University]]. After traveling as far as Portsmouth, New Hampshire, he returned to Boston on October 12 to preach to 30,000 people before continuing his tour.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=284}}

Whitefield then traveled to Northampton at the invitation of Jonathan Edwards. He preached twice in the parish church, and Edwards was so moved that he wept. He then spent time in New Haven, Connecticut, where he preached at Yale University. From there, he traveled down the coast, reaching New York on October 29. Whitefield's assessment of New England's churches and clergy prior to his intervention was negative. "I am verily persuaded," he wrote, "the Generality of Preachers talk of an unknown, unfelt Christ. And the Reason why Congregations have been so dead, is because dead Men preach to them."{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=284}}

Whitefield met Gilbert Tennent on Staten Island and asked him to preach in Boston to continue the revival there. Tennent accepted and, in December, began a three-month-long preaching tour throughout New England. Besides Boston, Tennent preached in towns throughout Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Like Whitefield's, Tennent's preaching produced large crowds, many conversions, and much controversy. While antirevivalists such as [[Timothy Cutler]] heavily criticized Tennent's preaching, most of Boston's ministers were supportive.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=285}}

Tennent was followed in the summer of 1741 by itinerant minister [[James Davenport (clergyman)|James Davenport]], who proved to be more controversial than either Tennent or Whitefield. His rants and attacks against "unconverted" ministers inspired much opposition, and he was arrested in Connecticut for violating a law against itinerant preaching. At his trial, he was found mentally ill and deported to Long Island. Soon after, he arrived in Boston and resumed his fanatical preaching, only to once again be declared insane and expelled. The last of Davenport's radical episodes took place in March 1743 in New London, when he ordered his followers to burn wigs, cloaks, rings, and other vanities. He also ordered the [[burning of books]] by religious authors such as [[John Flavel]] and [[Increase Mather]].{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=285}} Following the intervention of two pro-revival "[[Old and New Light|New Light]]" ministers, Davenport's mental state apparently improved, and he published a [[Retractions in academic publishing|retraction]] of his earlier excesses.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=286}}

Whitefield, Tennent, and Davenport would be followed by a number of both clerical and lay itinerants. However, the Awakening in New England was primarily sustained by the efforts of [[Parish church|parish]] ministers. Sometimes revival would be initiated by regular preaching or the customary [[pulpit]] exchanges between two ministers. Through their efforts, New England experienced a "great and general Awakening" between 1740 and 1743, characterized by a greater interest in religious experience, widespread emotional preaching, and intense emotional reactions accompanying conversion, including fainting and weeping.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=286}} There was a greater emphasis on prayer and devotional reading, and the Puritan ideal of converted church membership was revived. It is estimated that between 20,000 and 50,000 new members were admitted to New England's Congregational churches even as expectations for members increased.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=287}}

By 1745, the Awakening had begun to wane. Revivals would continue to spread to the southern backcountry and slave communities in the 1750s and 1760s.{{Sfn|Smith|2015|p=2}}

===Conflict===
[[File:Arch Street, with the Second Presbyterian Church (19592935679).jpg|thumb|Philadelphia's Second Presbyterian Church, ministered by New Light [[Gilbert Tennent]], was built between 1750 and 1753 after the split between Old and New Side Presbyterians.]]
{{See|Old and New Light}}
The Great Awakening aggravated existing conflicts within the Protestant churches, often leading to [[schism]]s between supporters of revival, known as "New Lights", and opponents of revival, known as "Old Lights". The Old Lights saw the [[religious enthusiasm]] and [[Itinerant preacher|itinerant preaching]] unleashed by the Awakening as disruptive to church order, preferring formal worship and a settled, university-educated ministry. They mocked revivalists as being ignorant, [[heterodox]], or [[con artist]]s. New Lights accused Old Lights of being more concerned with social status than with saving souls and even questioned whether some Old Light ministers were even converted. They also supported itinerant ministers who disregarded [[parish]] boundaries.{{sfnm |1a1=Kidd |1y=2007 |1pp=28–29 |2a1=Smith |2y=2015 |2p=2}}

Congregationalists in New England experienced 98 schisms, which in Connecticut also affected which group would be considered "official" for tax purposes. It is estimated in New England that in the churches there were about one-third each of New Lights, Old Lights, and those who saw both sides as valid.{{Sfn|Kee|Frost|Albu|Lindberg|1998|pp=415–416}} The Awakening aroused a wave of [[Ecclesiastical separatism|separatist]] feeling within the Congregational churches of New England. Around 100 Separatist congregations were organized throughout the region by [[Strict Congregationalists]]. Objecting to the [[Halfway Covenant]], Strict Congregationalists required evidence of conversion for church membership and also objected to the semi-presbyterian [[Saybrook Platform]], which they felt infringed on congregational autonomy. Because they threatened Congregationalist uniformity, the Separatists were persecuted, and in Connecticut they were denied the same legal toleration enjoyed by Baptists, Quakers, and Anglicans.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|pp=290–291}}

The Baptists benefited the most from the Great Awakening. Although numerically small before the outbreak of revival, Baptist churches experienced growth during the last half of the 18th century. By 1804, there were over 300 Baptist churches in New England. This growth was primarily due to an influx of former New Light Congregationalists who became convinced of Baptist doctrines, such as [[believer's baptism]]. In some cases, entire Separatist congregations accepted Baptist beliefs.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|pp=292–293}}

As revivalism spread through the Presbyterian churches, the [[Old Side–New Side Controversy]] broke out between the anti-revival "Old Side" and the pro-revival "New Side". At issue was the place of revivalism in American Presbyterianism, specifically the "relation between doctrinal orthodoxy and experimental knowledge of Christ."{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=271}} The New Side, led by Gilbert Tennent and Jonathan Dickinson, believed that strict adherence to orthodoxy was meaningless if one lacked a personal religious experience, a sentiment expressed in Tennent's 1739 sermon "The Danger of an Unconverted Ministry". Whitefield's tour had helped the revival party grow but only worsened the controversy. When the Presbyterian [[Synod of Philadelphia]] met in May 1741, the Old Side expelled the New Side, which then reorganized itself into the [[Synod of New York]].{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=272}}

===Aftermath===
Historian John Howard Smith noted that the Great Awakening made [[sectarianism]] an essential characteristic of American Christianity.{{Sfn|Smith|2015|p=8}} While the Awakening divided many Protestant churches between Old and New Lights, it also unleashed a strong impulse towards interdenominational unity among the various Protestant denominations. Evangelicals considered the new birth to be "a bond of fellowship that transcended disagreements on fine points of doctrine and polity", allowing Anglicans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and others to cooperate across denominational lines.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=293}}

While divisions between the Old and New Lights remained, the New Lights became less radical over time, and evangelicalism became more mainstream.{{sfnm |1a1=Smith |1y=2015 |1p=3 |2a1=Winiarski |2y=2005}} By 1758, the Old Side–New Side split in the Presbyterian Church had been healed, and the two factions had reunited. In part, this was due to the growth of the New Side and the numerical decline of the Old Side. In 1741, the pro-revival party had around 22 ministers, but this number had increased to 73 by 1758.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=273}} While the fervor of the Awakening would fade, the acceptance of revivalism and insistence on personal conversion would remain recurring features in 18th- and 19th-century Presbyterianism.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=275}}

The Great Awakening inspired the creation of evangelical educational institutions. In 1746, New Side Presbyterians founded what would become [[Princeton University]].{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=273}} In 1754, the efforts of [[Eleazar Wheelock]] led to what would become [[Dartmouth College]], originally established to train Native American boys for missionary work among their own people.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=289}} While initially resistant, well-established [[Yale University]] came to embrace revivalism and played a leading role in American evangelicalism for the next century.{{Sfn|Ahlstrom|2004|p=290}}