Editing Forced labour (section)

== Forms of unfree labour ==
[[File:Gold Rush Indian Woman Panning.jpg|thumb|Illustration of Native woman panning for gold]]

=== Slavery ===
{{main|Slavery}}
The archetypal and best-known form of unfree labour is [[slavery|chattel slavery]], in which individual workers are legally owned throughout their lives, and may be bought, sold or otherwise exchanged by owners, while never or rarely receiving any personal benefit from their labour. Slavery was common in many [[Ancient history|ancient societies]], including [[Slavery in ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]], [[Babylon]], [[History of Iran|Persia]], [[Slavery in ancient Greece|ancient Greece]], [[Slavery in ancient Rome|Rome]], [[History of China#Ancient China|ancient China]], [[History of slavery in the Muslim world|the pre-modern Muslim world]], as well as many societies in [[Africa]] and [[Americas|the Americas]]. Being sold into slavery was a common fate of populations that were conquered in wars. Perhaps the most prominent example of chattel slavery was the enslavement of many millions of [[black people]] in Africa, as well as their forced transportation to the Americas, Asia, or Europe, where their status as slaves was almost always inherited by their descendants.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}

The term "slavery" is often applied to situations which do not meet the above definitions, but which are other, closely related forms of unfree labour, such as [[debt slavery]] or debt-bondage (although not all repayment of debts through labour constitutes unfree labour). Examples are the [[Repartimiento]] system in the [[Spanish Empire]], or the work of [[Indigenous Australians]] in [[northern Australia]] on sheep or cattle stations ([[ranch]]es), from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century. In the latter case, workers were rarely or never paid, and were restricted by regulations and/or police intervention to regions around their places of work.
[[File:Mines 1.jpg|thumb|Mine workers in [[Ancient Greece]] were often [[Slavery in Ancient Greece|slaves]]]]
In late 16th century Japan, "unfree labour" or [[Slavery in Japan|slavery]] was officially banned; but forms of contract and indentured labour persisted alongside the period's penal codes' forced labour. Somewhat later, the [[Edo period]]'s penal laws prescribed "non-free labour" for the immediate families of executed criminals in Article 17 of the {{lang|ja-Latn|Gotōke reijō}} (Tokugawa House Laws), but the practice never became common. The 1711 {{lang|ja-Latn|Gotōke reijō}} was compiled from over 600 statutes that were promulgated between 1597 and 1696.<ref>Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=0YIbNlliRswC&dq=hideyoshi+slavery&pg=PA31 ''Frontier Contact Between Choson Korea and Tokugawa Japan,'' pp. 31–32.]</ref>

According to [[Kevin Bales]] in ''[[Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy]]'' (1999), there are now an estimated 27 million slaves in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2005/issue3/0305p28.html |title=Slavery in the Twenty-First Century |publisher=United Nations |first1=Howard |last1=Dodson |access-date=2013-03-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412155246/https://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2005/issue3/0305p28.html |archive-date= Apr 12, 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/2010401.stm |title=Millions 'forced into slavery' |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2002-05-27 |access-date=2013-03-20}}</ref>

{{see also|Global Slavery Index}}

===Blackbirding===
[[File:Остарбайтери 1942.jpg|right|thumb|Ukrainian ''[[Ostarbeiter]]s'' from [[Kyiv Oblast]] depart to Nazi Germany to serve as labor force, 1942]]
[[Blackbirding]] involves kidnapping or trickery to transport people to another country or far away from home, to work as a slave or indentured labourer. In some cases, workers were returned home after a period of time.

===Serfdom===
[[Serfdom]] bonds labourers to the land they farm, typically in a [[feudal]] society. Serfs typically have no legal right to leave, change employers, or seek paid work, though depending on economic conditions many did so anyway. Unlike chattel slaves, they typically cannot be sold separately from the land, and have rights such as the military protection of the lord.

===Truck system===
{{main|Truck system}}
A truck system, in the specific sense in which the term is used by [[Labor history (discipline)|labour historians]], refers to an unpopular or even exploitative form of payment associated with small, isolated and/or rural communities, in which workers or [[self-employed]] small producers are paid in either: goods, a form of payment known as [[truck system|truck wages]], or tokens, [[scrip|private currency]] ("scrip") or direct credit, to be used at a '''company store''', owned by their employers. A specific kind of truck system, in which credit advances are made against future work, is known in the U.S. as [[debt bondage]].

Many scholars have suggested that employers use such systems to exploit workers and/or indebt them. This could occur, for example, if employers were able to pay workers with goods which had a market value below the level of [[subsistence]], or by selling items to workers at inflated prices. Others argue that truck wages were a convenient way for isolated communities, such as during the early colonial settlement of North America, to operate when official currency was scarce.<ref>{{Citation |last=Ommer |first=Rosemary E. |title=truck system |date=2004 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195415599.001.0001/acref-9780195415599-e-1568 |work=The Oxford Companion to Canadian History |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195415599.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-541559-9 |access-date=2022-06-10|url-access=subscription }}.</ref>

By the early 20th century, truck systems were widely seen, in [[industrialised]] countries, as exploitative; perhaps the most well-known example of this view was a 1947 U.S. hit song "[[Sixteen Tons]]". Many countries have [[Truck Act]] legislation that outlaws truck systems and requires payment in cash.

===Mandatory services due to social status===
====Corvée====
{{main|Corvée|Socage}}
[[File:Reeve and Serfs.jpg|thumb|Depiction of socage on the royal [[demesne]] (miniature from the [[Queen Mary Psalter]], {{Circa|1310}}).<br>[[British Library]], London]]
Though most closely associated with [[Medieval]] Europe, governments throughout human history have imposed regular short stints of unpaid labour upon lower social classes. These might be annual obligations of a few weeks or something similarly regular that lasted for the labourer's entire working life. As the system developed in the Philippines and elsewhere, the labourer could pay an appropriate fee and be exempted from the obligation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Agoncillo |first=Teodoro A. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29915943 |title=History of the Filipino people |date=1990 |publisher=Garotech Pub |isbn=971-10-2415-2 |edition=8th |location=Quezon City [Philippines] |pages=83 |oclc=29915943}}</ref>

====Vetti-chakiri====
{{main|Veth (India)}}
A form of forced labour in which peasants and members of lower castes were required to work for free existed in India before independence. This form of labour was known by several names, including ''veth'', ''vethi'', {{lang|sa-Latn|vetti-chakiri}} and {{lang|fa-Latn|begar}} .<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shah |first=Ghanshyam |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1101041666 |title=Social Movements in India : a Review of Literature. |date=2004 |publisher=Sage Publications |isbn=978-81-321-1977-7 |edition=2nd |location=New Delhi |oclc=1101041666}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Menon |first=Amarnath K. |date=December 29, 2007 |title=The red revolt |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20071231-the-red-revolt-734843-2007-12-20 |access-date=2022-06-14 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

===Penal labour===
{{main|Penal labour}}
{{see also|Convicts in Australia|Katorga|Devil's Island}}

====Labour camps====
{{Main|Labour camp}}
{{see also|The Holocaust|Japanese war crimes|Slavery in Japan|Gulag|Laogai|Kwalliso|Arbeitslager|Nazi concentration camps|Forced labor of Germans after World War II|History of Germany (1945–90)#Forced labour reparations}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-138-1083-20, Russland, Mogilew, Zwangsarbeit von Juden.jpg|thumb|Jewish forced labourers during the Holocaust in [[Mogilev]], Belarus, July 1941.]]
[[File:Political prisoners at Intalag, USSR.jpg|thumb|[[Political prisoner]]s eating lunch in a [[Gulag]] camp, 1955.]]
Another historically significant example of forced labour was that of [[political prisoner]]s, people from conquered or occupied countries, members of persecuted minorities, and [[prisoners of war]], especially during the 20th century. The best-known example of this are the [[concentration camp]] system run by [[Nazi Germany]] in Europe during World War II, the ''[[Gulag]]'' camps<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/249117/Gulag Gulag], ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> run by the [[Soviet Union]],<ref>[http://www.jamestown.org/getman_paintings.php?painting_id=22 The Gulag Collection: Paintings of Nikolai Getman] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031012238/http://www.jamestown.org/getman_paintings.php?painting_id=22 |date=2007-10-31 }}.</ref> and the forced labour used by the military of the [[Empire of Japan]], especially during the [[Pacific War]] (such as the [[Burma Railway]]). Roughly 4,000,000 German POWs were used as "reparations labour" by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] for several years after the German surrender; this was permitted under the Third Geneva Convention provided they were accorded proper treatment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/psf/box31/t297a01.html |title=The original memorandum from 1944, signed by Morgenthau |publisher=Fdrlibrary.marist.edu |date=2004-05-27 |access-date=2013-03-20}}</ref> China's {{lang|zh-Latn|[[laogai]]}} ("labour reform") system and [[North Korea]]'s {{lang|ko-Latn|[[kwalliso]]}} camps are current examples.

About 12 million forced labourers, most of whom were Poles and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] citizens ({{lang|de|[[Ost-Arbeiter]]}}) were employed in the German war economy inside Nazi Germany.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1757323,00.html |title=Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers |publisher=Dw-world.de |access-date=2013-03-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://summeroftruth.org/enemy/barracks.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014235036/http://summeroftruth.org/enemy/barracks.html|url-status=dead|title=Forced Labor at Ford Werke AG during the Second World War|archive-date=October 14, 2007}}</ref> More than 2000 German companies profited from slave labour during the Nazi era, including [[Daimler-Benz|Daimler]], [[Deutsche Bank]], [[Siemens]], [[Volkswagen]], [[Hoechst AG|Hoechst]], [[Dresdner Bank]], [[Krupp]], [[Allianz]], [[BASF]], [[Bayer]], [[BMW]], and [[Degussa]].<ref>American Jewish Committee (2000). [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/germancos.html "German Firms That Used Slave Or Forced Labor During the Nazi Era"], webpage of Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved October 21, 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Roger Cohen |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9807EFD6113AF934A25751C0A96F958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 |title=German Companies Adopt Fund For Slave Laborers Under Nazis |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=1999-02-17 |access-date=2013-03-20}}</ref>  In particular, Germany's Jewish population was subject to slave labour prior to their extermination.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ushmm.org/collections/bibliography/forced-labor|title = Forced Labor – United States Holocaust Memorial Museum}}</ref>

In Asia, according to a joint study of historians featuring Zhifen Ju, [[Mark Peattie]], Toru Kubo, and Mitsuyoshi Himeta, more than 10 million Chinese were mobilised by the Japanese army and [[History of slavery#Japan|enslaved]] by the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere#The Kōa-in|Kōa-in]] for [[Slavery|slave labour]] in [[Manchukuo]] and north China.<ref>Zhifen Ju, "Japan's atrocities of conscripting and abusing north China draftees after the outbreak of the Pacific war", 2002.</ref> The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that in [[Java]], between 4 and 10 million {{lang|ja-Latn|[[romusha]]}} ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: "manual labourer") were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia. Only 52,000 were repatriated to Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%.<ref>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+id0029) Library of Congress, 1992, "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45"] Access date: February 9, 2007.</ref> Also, 6.87 million Koreans were forcefully put into slave labour from 1939 to 1945 in both Japan and Japanese-occupied Korea.<ref>{{Cite web |title=우리역사넷 |url=http://contents.history.go.kr/front/nh/print.do?levelId=nh_050_0020_0030_0030_0020_0030&whereStr= |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=contents.history.go.kr}}</ref> 

[[:id:Kerja rodi|Kerja rodi (''Heerendiensten'')]], was the term for forced labour in [[Indonesia]] under [[Dutch East Indies|Dutch colonial rule]].

The [[Khmer Rouge]] attempted to turn Cambodia into a [[classless society]] by depopulating cities and forcing the urban population ("New People") into agricultural [[collective farming|communes]]. The entire population was forced to become farmers in [[labor camp|labour camps]].

====Prison labour====

[[File:Modern chain gang.jpg|right|thumb|American prisoner "[[chain gang]]" labourers, 2006. Notice the shackles on the feet of the prisoners.]]
[[Convict]] or prison labour is another classic form of unfree labour. The forced labour of convicts has often been regarded with lack of sympathy, because of the [[social stigma]] attached to people regarded as common criminals.

Three [[British Empire|British colonies]] in Australia –  [[New South Wales]], [[Van Diemen's Land]] and [[Western Australia]] – are examples of the state use of convict labour. Australia received thousands of convict labourers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries who were given sentences for crimes ranging from those now considered to be minor misdemeanours to such serious offences as murder, rape and incest. A considerable number of Irish convicts were sentenced to transportation for [[treason]] while fighting against [[British rule in Ireland]].{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

More than 165,000 convicts were transported to Australian colonies from 1788 to 1868.<ref>[http://landing.ancestry.co.uk/intl/au/convict/ Convict Records] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527025021/http://landing.ancestry.co.uk/intl/au/convict/ |date=2009-05-27 }}, Ancestry.co.uk</ref> Most British or Irish convicts who were sentenced to transportation, however, completed their sentences in British jails and were not transported at all.

It is estimated that in the last 50 years more than 50 million people have been sent to Chinese {{lang|zh-Latn|[[laogai]]}} camps.<ref>Lewis, Aaron (October 5, 2005). "[http://news.sbs.com.au/dateline/inside_the_lao_gai_130581 Inside the Lao Gai]{{dead link|date=September 2018|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}". [http://news.sbs.com.au/dateline Special Broadcasting Service] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913041920/http://news.sbs.com.au/dateline |date=2008-09-13 }}. Retrieved on 2008-10-16.</ref>

===Indentured and bonded labour===
{{main|Indenture|bonded labour}}

A more common form in modern society is indenture, or ''bonded labour'', under which workers sign contracts to work for a specific period of time, for which they are paid only with accommodation and sustenance, or these essentials in addition to limited benefits such as cancellation of a debt, or transportation to a desired country.

===Contemporary illegal forced labour===
{{main|Slavery in the 21st century}}

While historically unfree labour was frequently sanctioned by law, in the present day most unfree labour now revolves around illegal control rather than legal ownership, as all countries have made slavery illegal.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3humDwAAQBAJ|title=Addressing Modern Slavery (Sydney: UNSW Press) |isbn=978-1742244631|access-date=2020-02-01 |last1=Nolan |first1=Justine |last2=Boersma |first2=Martijn |date=2019 |publisher=University of New South Wales Press |archive-date=2020-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028025858/https://books.google.com/books?id=3humDwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>