Editing Forensic science (section)

===Development of forensic science===
[[File:Ambroise Paré.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ambroise Paré]]'s surgical work laid the groundwork for the development of forensic techniques in the following centuries.]]

In 16th-century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the cause and [[manner of death]]. [[Ambroise Paré]], a French army [[surgery|surgeon]], systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs.<ref name=GAB>{{cite book|last=Kelly|first=Jack|title=Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive ...|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0465037186|page=79|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8xfs8tC8Ow0C&pg=PA79|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723015656/https://books.google.com/books?id=8xfs8tC8Ow0C&pg=PA79|archive-date=23 July 2016|date=27 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Porter|first1=Roy|title=The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 3, Early Modern Science|page=805|author2=Lorraine Daston|author3=Katharine Park}}</ref> Two [[Italian people|Italian]] surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of modern [[pathology]] by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease.<ref name=THSC>{{cite book|last1=Suter|first1=Patricia|title=The Hanging of Susanna Cox: The True Story of Pennsylvania's Most Notorious Infanticide and the Legend that Kept it Alive|publisher=Stackpole Books|location=Mechanicsburg|page=20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=frLETA3uU08C&q=Fortunato+Fidelis+and+Paolo+Zacchia&pg=PA20|author2=Russell D. Earnest|author3=Corinne P. Earnest|isbn=978-0811705608|year=2010}}</ref>  In the late 18th century, writings on these topics began to appear. These included ''A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health'' by the French physician [[François-Emmanuel Fodéré]]<ref name=HoFM>{{cite book|last=Madea|first=Burkhard|title=Handbook of Forensic Medicine|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|location=Sussex|isbn=978-0470979990|page=10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QLQZAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505230656/https://books.google.com/books?id=QLQZAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5&dq|archive-date=5 May 2016|date=4 March 2014}}</ref> and ''The Complete System of Police Medicine'' by the German medical expert [[Johann Peter Frank]].<ref name=MaSiEM>{{cite book|last=Lindemann|first=Mary|title=Medicine and Society in Early Modern Europe|publisher=University of Cambridge|location=Cambridge|isbn=0521412544|page=135|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fQxAkrbksTEC&pg=PA135|date=28 October 1999}}</ref>

As the rational values of the [[Enlightenment era]] increasingly permeated society in the 18th century, criminal investigation became a more evidence-based, rational procedure − the use of torture to force confessions was curtailed, and belief in witchcraft and other powers of the [[occult]] largely ceased to influence the court's decisions. Two examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the increasing use of [[logic]] and procedure in criminal investigations at the time. In 1784, in [[Lancaster, Lancashire|Lancaster]], John Toms was tried and convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw with a [[pistol]]. When the dead body of Culshaw was examined, a pistol wad (crushed paper used to secure powder and balls in the muzzle) found in his head wound matched perfectly with a torn newspaper found in Toms's pocket, leading to the [[conviction]].<ref name=SW>{{cite book|last=McCrery|first=Nigel|title=Silent Witnesses|publisher=Random House Books|location=London|isbn=978-1847946836|page=51|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dynVJYcteEkC&pg=PA51|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513220434/https://books.google.com/books?id=dynVJYcteEkC&pg=PA51&dq|archive-date=13 May 2016|date=29 August 2013}}</ref>

[[File:Diego Alva - Forensics Final Project (4).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|This is an example and explanation of extractor/ejector marks on casings.]]

In [[Warwick]] 1816, a farm laborer was tried and convicted of the murder of a young maidservant. She had been drowned in a shallow pool and bore the marks of violent assault. The police found footprints and an impression from corduroy cloth with a sewn patch in the damp earth near the pool. There were also scattered grains of [[wheat]] and chaff. The breeches of a farm labourer who had been threshing wheat nearby were examined and corresponded exactly to the impression in the earth near the pool.<ref>{{cite book|title=Science Against Crime|vauthors=Kind S, Overman M|publisher=Doubleday|location=New York|year=1972|isbn=0385092490|pages=[https://archive.org/details/scienceagainstcr00kind/page/12 12–13]|url=https://archive.org/details/scienceagainstcr00kind/page/12}}</ref>

An article appearing in [[Scientific American]] in 1885 describes the use of [[microscopy]] to distinguish between the blood of two persons in a criminal case in Chicago.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4U9AQAAIAAJ|title=Scientific American|date=1885-09-26|publisher=Munn & Company|pages=200|language=en}}</ref>