Editing Fundamental attribution error (section)

==Explanations==
Several theories predict the fundamental attribution error, and thus both compete to explain it, and can be falsified if it does not occur. Some examples include:
# '''[[Just-world fallacy]].''' The belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get, the concept of which was first theorized by [[Melvin J. Lerner]] in 1977.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lerner | first1 = M. J. | last2 = Miller | first2 = D. T. | year = 1977 | title = Just-world research and the attribution process: Looking back and ahead | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 85 | issue = 5| pages = 1030–1051 | doi=10.1037/0033-2909.85.5.1030}}</ref> Attributing failures to dispositional causes rather than situational causes—which are unchangeable and uncontrollable—satisfies our need to believe that the world is fair and that we have control over our lives. We are motivated to see a just world because this reduces our perceived threats,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Burger | first1 = J. M. | s2cid = 51912839 | year = 1981 | title = Motivational biases in the attribution of responsibility for an accident: A meta-analysis of the defensive-attribution hypothesis | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 90 | issue = 3| pages = 496–512 | doi=10.1037/0033-2909.90.3.496}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last1 = Walster | first1 = E | s2cid = 26708943 | year = 1966 | title = Assignment of responsibility for an accident | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 73–79 | doi=10.1037/h0022733 | pmid=5902079}}</ref> gives us a sense of security, helps us find meaning in difficult and unsettling circumstances, and benefits us psychologically.<ref name="correspondence">{{cite journal |last1= Gilbert |first1= D. T. |last2= Malone |first2= P. S. |year= 1995 |title= The correspondence bias |journal= Psychological Bulletin |volume= 117 |issue= 1 |pages= 21–38 |url= http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~dtg/Gilbert%20%26%20Malone%20%28CORRESPONDENCE%20BIAS%29.pdf |doi= 10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.21 |pmid= 7870861 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20051211090441/http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~dtg/Gilbert%20%26%20Malone%20%28CORRESPONDENCE%20BIAS%29.pdf |archive-date= 2005-12-11 }}</ref> However, the just-world fallacy also results in a tendency for people to [[Victim blaming|blame and disparage victims]] of an accident or a tragedy, such as [[rape]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Abrams | first1 = D. | last2 = Viki | first2 = G. T. | last3 = Masser | first3 = B. | last4 = Bohner | first4 = G. | s2cid = 45655502 | year = 2003 | title = Perceptions of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 84 | issue = 1| pages = 111–125 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.111| pmid = 12518974 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bell | first1 = S. T. | last2 = Kuriloff | first2 = P. J. | last3 = Lottes | first3 = I. | s2cid = 144894634 | year = 1994 | title = Understanding attributions of blame in stranger-rape and date-rape situations: An examinations of gender, race, identification, and students' social perceptions of rape victims | journal = Journal of Applied Social Psychology| volume = 24 | issue = 19| pages = 1719–1734 | doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.1994.tb01571.x}}</ref> and [[domestic abuse]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Summers | first1 = G. | last2 = Feldman | first2 = N. S. | year = 1984 | title = Blaming the victim versus blaming the perpetrator: An attributional analysis of spouse abuse | journal =  Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology| volume = 2 | issue = 4| pages = 339–347 | doi=10.1521/jscp.1984.2.4.339}}</ref> to reassure themselves of their insusceptibility to such events. People may even [[blame the victim]]'s faults in a "past life" to pursue justification for their bad outcome.<ref>Woogler, R. J. (1988). ''Other lives, other selves: A Jungian psychotherapist discovers past lives''. New York, Bantam.</ref>{{page needed|date=January 2014}}
# '''[[Salience (language)|Salience]] of the actor.''' We tend to attribute an observed effect to potential causes that capture our attention. When we observe other people, the person is the primary reference point while the situation is overlooked as if it is nothing but mere background. As such, attributions for others' behavior are more likely to focus on the person we see, not the situational forces acting upon that person that we may not be aware of.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lassiter | first1 = F. D. | last2 = Geers | first2 = A. L. | last3 = Munhall | first3 = P. J. | last4 = Ploutz-Snyder | first4 = R. J. | last5 = Breitenbecher | first5 = D. L. | s2cid = 1807297 | year = 2002 | title = Illusory causation: Why it occurs | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 13 | issue = 4| pages = 299–305 | doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2002..x| pmid = 12137131 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Robinson | first1 = J. | last2 = McArthur | first2 = L. Z. | year = 1982 | title = Impact of salient vocal qualities on causal attribution for a speaker's behavior | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 43 | issue = 2| pages = 236–247 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.43.2.236}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = E. R. | last2 = Miller | first2 = F. D. | year = 1979 | title = Salience and the cognitive appraisal in emotion | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 48 | issue = 4| pages = 813–838 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.48.4.813| pmid = 3886875 }}</ref> (When we observe ourselves, we are more aware of the forces acting upon us. Such a differential inward versus outward orientation<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Storms | first1 = M. D. | s2cid = 17120868 | year = 1973 | title = Videotape and the attribution process: Reversing actors' and observers' points of view | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 27 | issue = 2| pages = 165–175 | doi=10.1037/h0034782| pmid = 4723963 }}</ref> accounts for the actor–observer bias.)
# '''Lack of effortful adjustment.''' Sometimes, even though we are aware that the person's behavior is constrained by situational factors, we still commit the fundamental attribution error.<ref name= "JonesHarris67"/> This is because we do not take into account behavioral and situational information simultaneously to characterize the dispositions of the actor.<ref>Gilbert, D. T. (2002). Inferential correction. In T. Gilovich, D. W. Griffin, & D. Kahneman (Eds.), ''Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment''. Cambridge University Press.</ref> Initially, we use the observed behavior to characterize the person by [[automaticity]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Carlston | first1 = D. E. | last2 = Skowronski | first2 = J. J. | year = 1994 | title = Savings in the relearning of trait information as evidence for spontaneous inference generation | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 66 | issue = 5| pages = 840–880 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.66.5.840}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Moskowitz | first1 = G. B. | year = 1993 | title = Individual differences in social categorization: The influence of personal need for structure on spontaneous trait inferences | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 65 | pages = 132–142 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.65.1.132}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Newman | first1 = L. S. | year = 1993 | title = How individuals interpret behavior: Idiocentrism and spontaneous trait inference | journal = Social Cognition | volume = 11 | issue = 2| pages = 243–269 | doi=10.1521/soco.1993.11.2.243}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Uleman |first=J. S. |year=1987 |title=Consciousness and control: The case of spontaneous trait inferences. |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=337–354 |doi=10.1177/0146167287133004 |s2cid=145734862 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Winter | first1 = L. | last2 = Uleman | first2 = J. S. | s2cid = 9307725 | year = 1984 | title = When are social judgements made? Evidence for the spontaneousness of trait inferences | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 47 | issue = 2| pages = 237–252 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.47.2.237| pmid = 6481615 }}</ref> We need to make deliberate and conscious effort to adjust our inference by considering the situational constraints. Therefore, when situational information is not sufficiently taken into account for adjustment, the uncorrected dispositional inference creates the fundamental attribution error. This would also explain why people commit the fundamental attribution error to a greater degree when they're under [[cognitive load]]; i.e. when they have less motivation or energy for processing the situational information.<ref name=Gilbert1989>Gilbert, D. T. (1989). Thinking lightly about others: Automatic components of the social inference process. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), ''Unintended thought'' (pp. 189–211). New York, Guilford Press.</ref>
# '''Culture.''' It has been suggested cultural differences occur in attribution error:<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lagdridge|first=Darren|date=September 2004|title=The fundamental attribution error: A phenomenological critique|journal=British Journal of Social Psychology|volume=43|issue=3|pages=357–369|doi=10.1348/0144666042037962|pmid=15479535|author2=Trevor Butt}}</ref> people from [[individualistic]] (Western) cultures are reportedly more prone to the error while people from [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivistic]] cultures are less prone.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Miller|first=J. G.|year=1984|title=Culture and the development of everyday social explanation|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=46|issue=5|pages=961–978|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.46.5.961|pmid=6737211|url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/n/x/nxy906/COMPS/indivdualismandcollectivism/culture%20lit/to%20print/Miller1984culturalexplanation.pdf|accessdate=2019-09-24|archivedate=2021-09-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925184440/http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/n/x/nxy906/COMPS/indivdualismandcollectivism/culture%20lit/to%20print/Miller1984culturalexplanation.pdf|url-status=deviated}}</ref>  Based on cartoon-figure presentations to Japanese and American subjects, it has been suggested that collectivist subjects may be more influenced by information from context (for instance being influenced more by surrounding faces in judging facial expressions<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Masuda|first1=T.|last2=Ellsworth|first2=P. C.|author-link1=Takahiko Masuda|author-link2=Phoebe C. Ellsworth|author-link3=Batja Mesquita|last3=Mesquita|first3=B.|last4=Leu|first4=J.|last5=Tanida|first5=S.|last6=van de Veerdonk|first6=E.|year=2008|title=Placing the face in context: Cultural differences in the perception of facial emotion|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=94|issue=3|pages=365–381|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18284287/|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.94.3.365|pmid=18284287}}</ref>). Alternatively, individualist subjects may favor processing of focal objects, rather than contexts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Masuda |first1=T. |last2=Nisbett |first2=R. E. |s2cid=8850771 |year=2001 |title=Attending holistically vs. analytically: Comparing the context sensitivity of Japanese and Americans |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=81 |issue=5 |pages=922–934 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.922 |pmid=11708567}}</ref>  Others suggest Western individualism is associated with viewing both oneself and others as [[Self-determination theory|independent]] [[Agency (philosophy)|agents]], therefore focusing more on individuals rather than contextual details.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Markus |first1=H. R. |last2=Kitayama |first2=S. |year=1991 |title=Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation |journal=Psychological Review |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=224–253 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224|citeseerx=10.1.1.320.1159 }}</ref> Another study found that in contrast to American children emphasizing dispositional factors to explain an event, Hindu children from India were also found to rely more on situational factors.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-15 |title=Fundamental Attribution Error Theory in Psychology |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/fundamental-attribution.html |access-date=2024-10-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> This is due to individualistic cultures normalizing only valuing traits of each person, such as their skills, achievements, unique interests, and more.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-03 |title=Individualistic Cultures and Example Behavior |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-are-individualistic-cultures.html |access-date=2024-11-27 |language=en-US}}</ref> On the other hand, those in collectivistic cultures view each individual in terms of their social role, viewing them as valuable parts of a group.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-03 |title=Understanding Collectivist Cultures: Overview & Examples |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-are-collectivistic-cultures.html |access-date=2024-11-27 |language=en-US}}</ref> In these contexts, it is normalized to view decision making in terms of what benefits the larger group and aligns with social norms rather than one's own opinion. Based on these differences, participants in these studies mostly rely on aspects learned by their respective cultures, when making attributions.<ref>{{Citation |last=Dean |first=Kristy K. |title=Cross-Cultural Differences and Similarities in Attribution |date=2019 |work=Cross-Cultural Psychology |pages=575–597 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119519348.ch28 |access-date=2024-11-27 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781119519348.ch28 |isbn=978-1-119-51934-8 |last2=Koenig |first2=Anne M.|url-access=subscription }}</ref>