Editing Funding of science (section)

=== Public/State Funding ===
{{Main article|Science policy}}

{{See also|Research council|United States national laboratories (disambiguation){{!}}United States national laboratories|Federally funded research and development centers|label 3=List of federally-funded research and development centers (US)}}Public funding refers to activities financed by tax-payers money. This is primarily the case when the source of funds is channeled through government agencies. Higher education institutions are usually not completely publicly financed as they charge tuition fees and may receive funds from non-public sources.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

==== Rationale for funding ====
R&D is a costly, and long-term investment to which disruptions are harmful.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mansfield |first=Edwin |date=February 1991 |title=Academic research and industrial innovation |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/004873339190080A |journal=Research Policy |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(91)90080-A |archive-date=2022-10-31 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031233034/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/004873339190080A |url-status=live }}</ref>

The public sector has multiple reasons to fund science. The private sector is said to focus on the closer to the market stage of R&D policy, where [[wikt:appropriability|appropriability]] hence private returns are high.<ref name="Jones 1119–1135">{{Cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=C. I. |last2=Williams |first2=J. C. |date=1998-11-01 |title=Measuring the Social Return to R&D |url=https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-lookup/doi/10.1162/003355398555856 |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |language=en |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=1119–1135 |doi=10.1162/003355398555856 |issn=0033-5533 |archive-date=2023-11-01 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101043705/https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-abstract/113/4/1119/1916988?redirectedFrom=fulltext |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Basic research is weak on appropriability and so remains risky and under-financed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nelson |first=Richard R. |date=June 1959 |title=The Simple Economics of Basic Scientific Research |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/258177 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |language=en |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=297–306 |doi=10.1086/258177 |s2cid=154159452 |issn=0022-3808 |archive-date=2023-05-17 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517064719/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/258177 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Arrow |first=K. J. |title=Readings in Industrial Economics |chapter-url=http://www.nber.org/chapters/c2144.pdf |chapter=Economic Welfare and the Allocation of Resources for Invention |publisher=Palgrave |year=1972 |pages=219–236 |isbn=978-0-333-10964-9 |location=London |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-15486-9_13 |s2cid=38456056 |oclc= |archive-date=2020-10-15 |access-date=2022-06-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015165241/https://www.nber.org/chapters/c2144.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Consequently, although governmental sponsorship of research may provide support across the R&D value chain, it is often characterized as a [[market failure]] induced intervention.   Market incentives to invest in early-stage research are low. The theory of [[Public good (economics)|public goods]] seconds this argument.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Ostrom |first1=Vincent |title=Public Goods and Public Choices |date=2019-08-26 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429706899/chapters/10.4324/9780429047978-2 |work=Alternatives for Delivering Public Services |pages=7–49 |editor-last=Savas |editor-first=E. S. |edition=1 |publisher=Routledge |language=en |doi=10.4324/9780429047978-2 |isbn=978-0-429-04797-8 |access-date=2022-04-13 |last2=Ostrom |first2=Elinor |s2cid=150900527 |archive-date=2023-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101043706/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429047978-2/public-goods-public-choices-vincent-ostrom-elinor-ostrom |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Publicly funded research often supports research fields where social rate of return may be higher than private rate of return.  Appropriability potential is the potential for an entity to capture the value of an innovation or research outcome.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vuong|first1=Quan-Hoang|date=2018|title=The (ir)rational consideration of the cost of science in transition economies |journal=Nature Human Behaviour|volume=2|issue=1|pages=5|doi=10.1038/s41562-017-0281-4|pmid=30980055 |s2cid=46878093 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The general [[Free-rider problem|free rider problem]] of public goods is a threat especially in case of global public goods such as [[climate change research]], which may lower incentives to invest by both the private sector but also other governments.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Archibugi |first1=Daniele |last2=Filippetti |first2=Andrea |date=2015-01-29 |title=Knowledge as Global Public Good |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2557339 |language=en |location=Rochester, NY |ssrn=2557339 |archive-date=2023-11-01 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101043708/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2557339 |url-status=live }}</ref> &nbsp;

In [[Endogenous growth theory|endogenous growth theories]], R&D contributes to growth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=Richard R. |last2=Romer |first2=Paul M. |date=January 1996 |title=Science, Economic Growth, and Public Policy |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/05775132.1996.11471873 |journal=Challenge |language=en |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=9–21 |doi=10.1080/05775132.1996.11471873 |issn=0577-5132 |archive-date=2023-11-01 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101043705/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/05775132.1996.11471873 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Some have depicted this relationship in the inverse, claiming that growth drives innovation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mensch |first=Gerhard |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4036883 |title=Stalemate in technology : innovations overcome the depression |date=1979 |publisher=Ballinger Pub. Co |isbn=0-88410-611-X |location=Cambridge, Mass. |oclc=4036883}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Schmookler |first=Jacob |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.4159/harvard.9780674432833/html |title=Invention and Economic Growth |date=2013-10-01 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-43283-3 |language=en |doi=10.4159/harvard.9780674432833 |archive-date=2023-08-04 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230804170737/http://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.4159/harvard.9780674432833/html |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2013, science workers applying their (tacit) knowledge may be considered an economic driver.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kastrinos |first=N. |date=2013-12-01 |title=The financial crisis and Greek R&D policy from a Schumpeterian perspective |url=https://academic.oup.com/spp/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/scipol/sct025 |journal=Science and Public Policy |language=en |volume=40 |issue=6 |pages=779–791 |doi=10.1093/scipol/sct025 |issn=0302-3427 |archive-date=2022-04-05 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405164403/https://academic.oup.com/spp/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/scipol/sct025 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> When this knowledge and/or human capital emigrates, countries face the so-called [[Human capital flight|brain–drain]]. Science policy can assist to avoid this as large shares of governmental R&D is spent on researchers and supporting staff personnel salaries.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goolsbee |first=Austan |date=April 1998 |title=Does Government R&D Policy Mainly Benefit Scientists and Engineers? |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w6532.pdf |journal=American Economic Review |language=en |location=Cambridge, MA |pages=w6532 |doi=10.3386/w6532 |s2cid=2763177 |archive-date=2018-06-02 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602045353/http://www.nber.org/papers/w6532.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In this sense, science funding is not only [[discretionary spending]] but also has elements of [[Mandatory spending|entitlement spending]].{{cn|date=March 2025}}

R&D funded and especially performed by the State may allow greater influence over its direction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mazzucato |first=Mariana |date=December 2015 |title=6. Innovation, the State and Patient Capital |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-923X.12235 |journal=The Political Quarterly |language=en |volume=86 |pages=98–118 |doi=10.1111/1467-923X.12235 |archive-date=2023-04-29 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429103045/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-923X.12235 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> This is particularly important in the case of R&D contributing to public goods. However, the ability of governments have been criticized over whether they are best positioned to pick winners and losers.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Falck |first1=Oliver |title=Arguments for and against Policies to Promote National Champions |date=2011 |url=https://mitpress.universitypressscholarship.com/10.7551/mitpress/9780262016018.001.0001/upso-9780262016018-chapter-1 |work=Industrial Policy for National Champions |publisher=The MIT Press |doi=10.7551/mitpress/9780262016018.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-262-01601-8 |access-date=2022-03-28 |last2=Gollier |first2=Christian |last3=Woessmann |first3=Ludger |archive-date=2023-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101043706/https://academic.oup.com/mit-press-scholarship-online |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> In the EU, dedicated safeguards have been enacted under a dedicated form of competition law called [[State aid (European Union)|State Aid]]. State Aid safeguards business activities from governmental interventions. This invention was largely driven by the German [[Ordoliberalism|ordoliberal]] school as to eliminate state subsidies advocated by the French [[Dirigisme|dirigiste]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Warlouzet |first=Laurent |date=January 2019 |title=The EEC/EU as an Evolving Compromise between French Dirigism and German Ordoliberalism (1957–1995) |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/jcms.12817 |journal=JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=77–93 |doi=10.1111/jcms.12817 |s2cid=159378013 |issn=0021-9886 |archive-date=2023-11-01 |access-date=2022-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101043707/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcms.12817 |url-status=live }}</ref> Threats to global public goods has refueled the debate on the role of governments beyond a mere market failure fixer, the so-called mission-driven policies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mazzucato |first=Mariana |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/841672270 |title=The entrepreneurial state : debunking public vs. private sector myths |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-85728-252-1 |edition=Revised |location=London |oclc=841672270}}</ref>

==== Funding modalities ====
Governments may fund science through different instruments such as: direct subsidies, tax credits, loans, financial instruments, regulatory measures, public procurement etc.
While direct subsidies have been the prominent instrument to fund business R&D, since the [[Financial crisis of 2007–2008|financial crisis]] a shift has taken place in OECD countries in the direction of tax breaks. The explanation seems to lay in the theoretical argument that firms know better, and in the practical benefit of lower administrative burden of such schemes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=OECD |title=OECD Science, Technology and Innovation Outlook 2020 |date=2021-01-12 |isbn=9789264391987 |language=en |chapter=Government support for business research and innovation in a world in crisis |doi=10.1787/7a7891a5-en |chapter-url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-innovation-outlook-2021_7a7891a5-en |s2cid=242590616 |archive-date=2023-05-01 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501050427/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-innovation-outlook-2021_7a7891a5-en |url-status=live }}</ref> Depending on the funding type, different modalities to distribute the research funds may be used. For regulatory measures, often the [[Competition law|competition/antitrust]] authorities will rule on exemptions. In case of block funding the funds may be directly allocated to given institutions such as higher education institutions with relative autonomy over their use.<ref name=":1" /> For competitive grants, governments are often assisted by research councils to distribute the funds.<ref>{{Citation |last=Lepori |first=Benedetto |title=The changing governance of research systems. Agencification and organizational differentiation in research funding organizations |date=2019 |url=https://www.elgaronline.com/view/edcoll/9781784715939/9781784715939.00034.xml |work=Handbook on Science and Public Policy |pages=448–465 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |language=en |doi=10.4337/9781784715946.00034 |isbn=978-1-78471-594-6 |s2cid=197812506 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-date=2022-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405164403/https://www.elgaronline.com/view/edcoll/9781784715939/9781784715939.00034.xml |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Research councils are (usually public) bodies that provide research funding in the form of research grants or [[scholarship]]s. These include arts councils and research councils for the funding of science.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

==== List of research councils ====
An incomplete list of national and international pan-disciplinary public research councils:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name !! Location
|-
| [[National Scientific and Technical Research Council]]
| {{Flag|Argentina}}
|-
| [[Australian Research Council]], [[National Health and Medical Research Council]], [[CSIRO|Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation]], [[Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation]], [[Australian Space Agency]], [[Defence Science and Technology Group]]
| {{Flag|Australia}}
|-
| [[Austrian Research Promotion Agency]], [[Austrian Science Fund]], [[Austrian Space Agency]]
| {{Flag|Austria}}
|-
|[[Sciensano]], [[Research Foundation - Flanders (FWO)|Research Foundation - Flanders]]
| {{Flag|Belgium}}
|-
| [[National Council for Scientific and Technological Development]], [[Brazilian Space Agency]]
| {{Flag|Brazil}}
|-
| [[National Research Council (Canada)|National Research Council]], [[Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council]], [[Canadian Institutes of Health Research]], [[Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council]], [[Canadian Space Agency]], [[Defence Research and Development Canada]], [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]], [[Public Health Agency of Canada]]
| {{Flag|Canada}}
|-
| [[CONICYT|National Commission for Scientific Research and Technology]]
| {{Flag|Chile}}
|-
| [[National Natural Science Foundation of China]], [[Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Science and Technology]], [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]], [[China National Space Administration]]
| {{Flag|China}}
|-
| [[Czech Science Foundation]], [[Technology Agency of the Czech Republic]], [[Czech Space Office]]
| {{Flag|Czech Republic}}
|-
| Danish Agency for Science, Technology and Innovation<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ufm.dk/en|title=Home|first=Mikael|last=Larsen|website=Uddannelses- og Forskningsministeriet|access-date=2023-06-21|archive-date=2023-10-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008143833/https://ufm.dk/en|url-status=live}}</ref>
| {{Flag|Denmark}}
|-
| [[European Research Council]], [[European Defence Fund]]
| {{Flag|European Union}}
|-
| [[Research Council of Finland]], [[Tekes (agency)|Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation]]
| {{Flag|Finland}}
|-
| [[Agence Nationale de la Recherche|National Agency for Research]], [[CNES|National Centre for Space Studies]], [[French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission]], [[French National Centre for Scientific Research]], [[Inserm|French National Institute of Health and Medical Research]]
| {{Flag|France}}
|-
| [[Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft|German Research Foundation]], [[German Aerospace Center]]
| {{Flag|Germany}}
|-
| [[National Hellenic Research Foundation]]
| {{Flag|Greece}}
|-
| [[Icelandic Centre for Research]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rannis.is/english/ |title=RANNIS (Icelandic Centre for Research) |website=Rannis.is |access-date=2015-12-24 |archive-date=2023-04-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429235220/https://www.rannis.is/english/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| {{Flag|Iceland}}
|-
| [[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]], [[Indian Council of Medical Research]], [[Indian Space Research Organisation]], [[Indian Council of Agricultural Research]], [[Defence Research and Development Organization]]
| {{Flag|India}}
|-
| [[Irish Research Council]], [[Science Foundation Ireland]]
| {{Flag|Ireland}}
|-
| [[Israel Science Foundation]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.isf.org.il/english/|title=Israel Science Foundation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151216073658/http://www.isf.org.il/English/|archive-date=2015-12-16|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Israel Innovation Authority]], [[Israel Space Agency]]
| {{Flag|Israel}}
|-
| [[National Research Council (Italy)|National Research Council]], [[Italian Space Agency]]
| {{Flag|Italy}}
|-
| [[National Research and Technology Council (Mexico)|National Research and Technology Council]], [[Mexican Space Agency]]
| {{Flag|Mexico}}
|-
| [[Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research]], [[Netherlands Space Office]]
| {{Flag|Netherlands}}
|-
| [[Research Council of Norway]], [[Norwegian Defence Research Establishment]], [[Norwegian Institute of Public Health]], [[Norwegian Space Agency]]
| {{Flag|Norway}}
|-
| [[Pakistan Science Foundation]], [[Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]], [[Pakistan Health Research Council]], [[Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission]], [[Pakistan Agricultural Research Council]], [[Defence Science and Technology Organization]]
| {{Flag|Pakistan}}
|-
| [[Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia|Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology]]
| {{Flag|Portugal}}
|-
| [[Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia]]
| {{Flag|Serbia}}
|-
| [[Agency for Science, Technology and Research]], [[Defence Science and Technology Agency]]
| {{Flag|Singapore}}
|-
| [[National Research Foundation of South Africa]]
| {{Flag|South Africa}}
|-
| [[Spanish National Research Council]], [[State Research Agency]], [[National Institute for Aerospace Technology]], [[Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology]], [[Spanish Space Agency]], [[Carlos III Health Institute]], [[CIEMAT|Centre for Energy, Environmental and Technological Research]]
| {{Flag|Spain}}
|-
| [[National Research Council of Sri Lanka]]
| {{Flag|Sri Lanka}}
|-
| [[Swedish Research Council]], [[Swedish National Space Agency]], [[Swedish Defence Research Agency]]
| {{Flag|Sweden}}
|-
| [[Swiss National Science Foundation]], [[Swiss Space Office]]
| {{Flag|Switzerland}}
|-
| [[National Science and Technology Development Agency]]
| {{Flag|Thailand}}
|-
| [[Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey]], [[Turkish Space Agency]]
| {{Flag|Turkey}}
|-
| Uganda National Council for Science and Technology<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uncst.go.ug/|title=Uganda National Council for Science and Technology|website=www.uncst.go.ug|access-date=2023-06-21|archive-date=2023-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019193144/http://www.uncst.go.ug/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| {{Flag|Uganda}}
|-
| [[National Research Foundation (United Arab Emirates)|National Research Foundation]], [[United Arab Emirates Space Agency]]
| {{Flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|-
| [[Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council]], [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]], [[Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council]], [[Science and Technology Facilities Council]], [[Defence Science and Technology Laboratory]], [[Innovate UK]], [[National Institute for Health and Care Research]], [[Natural Environment Research Council]], [[Economic and Social Research Council]], [[Research England]], [[United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority]], [[UK Energy Research Centre]], [[UK Space Agency]], [[Advanced Research and Invention Agency]]
| {{Flag|United Kingdom}}
|-
| [[National Science Foundation]], [[National Institutes of Health]], [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]], [[Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency]], [[Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy]], [[Office of Science|DOE Office of Science]], [[Agricultural Research Service]]
| {{Flag|United States}}
|}

==== Conditionality ====
In addition to project deliverables, funders also increasingly introduce new eligibility requirements alongside traditional ones such as research [[Scientific integrity|integrity/ethics]].

The 2016 [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379949.locale=en Open Science movement], tied funding increasingly tied to [[data management plan]]s and making [[FAIR data|data FAIR]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Mark D. |last2=Dumontier |first2=Michel |last3=Aalbersberg |first3=IJsbrand Jan |last4=Appleton |first4=Gabrielle |last5=Axton |first5=Myles |last6=Baak |first6=Arie |last7=Blomberg |first7=Niklas |last8=Boiten |first8=Jan-Willem |last9=da Silva Santos |first9=Luiz Bonino |last10=Bourne |first10=Philip E. |last11=Bouwman |first11=Jildau |date=15 March 2016 |title=The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship |journal=Sci Data |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=160018 |doi=10.1038/sdata.2016.18 |issn=2052-4463 |pmc=4792175 |pmid=26978244|bibcode=2016NatSD...360018W }}</ref> The Open Science requirement complements [[Open access|Open Access]] mandates<ref>{{cite web |title=OECD Legal Instruments |url=https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0347 |access-date=2022-03-28 |website=legalinstruments.oecd.org |archive-date=2022-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401060141/https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0347 |url-status=live }}</ref> which in 2025 are widespread.<ref>{{cite web |title=How many Open Access policies are there worldwide? - ROARMAP |url=http://roarmap.eprints.org/dataviz2.html |access-date=2022-03-28 |website=roarmap.eprints.org |archive-date=2022-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405164411/http://roarmap.eprints.org/dataviz2.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The gender dimension also gained ground in recent years. The European Commission mandates research applicants to adopt gender equality plans across their organization.<ref>{{cite web |last=European Commission |date=31 March 2021 |title=Horizon Europe - Work Programme - 13. General Annexes |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/docs/2021-2027/horizon/wp-call/2021-2022/wp-13-general-annexes_horizon-2021-2022_en.pdf |access-date=9 April 2022 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401094259/https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/docs/2021-2027/horizon/wp-call/2021-2022/wp-13-general-annexes_horizon-2021-2022_en.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The UK Research and Innovation Global Challenges Research Fund mandates a gender equality statement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Equality, diversity and inclusion |url=https://www.ukri.org/about-us/policies-standards-and-data/good-research-resource-hub/equality-diversity-and-inclusion/ |access-date=2022-03-28 |website=www.ukri.org |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405164404/https://www.ukri.org/about-us/policies-standards-and-data/good-research-resource-hub/equality-diversity-and-inclusion/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

As of 2022, the European Commission also introduced a "Do No Significant Harm" principle to the Framework Program which aims to curb the environmental footprint of scientific projects.<ref>{{cite web |last=European Commission |date=1 February 2022 |title=Horizon Europe - Programme Guide |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/docs/2021-2027/horizon/guidance/programme-guide_horizon_en.pdf |access-date=9 April 2022 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401045052/https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/docs/2021-2027/horizon/guidance/programme-guide_horizon_en.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> "Do No Significant Harm" has been criticized as coupled with other eligibility requirements it is often characterized as [[Red tape|red-tape]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jaffe |first=Matthew |title=2021 IEEE/AIAA 40th Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC) |chapter=Levels of Requirements, Robustness, Unicorns, and Other Semi-Mythical Creatures in the Requirements Engineering Bestiary: Why "Types" of Software Requirements Are Often Misleading |date=2021-10-03 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/dasc52595.2021.9594323 |pages=1–8 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/dasc52595.2021.9594323 |isbn=978-1-6654-3420-1 |s2cid=244137490 |archive-date=2023-11-01 |access-date=2022-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101044214/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9594323/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=MEPs decry inclusion of 'do no significant harm' principle in Horizon Europe |url=https://sciencebusiness.net/news/meps-decry-inclusion-do-no-significant-harm-principle-horizon-europe |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=Science{{!}}Business |language=en |archive-date=2022-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406145950/https://sciencebusiness.net/news/meps-decry-inclusion-do-no-significant-harm-principle-horizon-europe |url-status=live }}</ref> Since 2020,  European Commission has been trying to simplify the Framework Program with limited success.<ref>{{Cite web |last=European Commission |date=April 2020 |title=Implementation Strategy for Horizon Europe - Version 1.0 |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/research_and_innovation/strategy_on_research_and_innovation/documents/ec_rtd_implementation-strategy_he.pdf |access-date=14 April 2022 |archive-date=14 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214111525/https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/research_and_innovation/strategy_on_research_and_innovation/documents/ec_rtd_implementation-strategy_he.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Simplification attempts were also taken by the [[UK Research and Innovation]].<ref>{{cite web |website=ukri.org |date=28 February 2022 |title=How we're improving your funding experience |url=https://www.ukri.org/apply-for-funding/how-were-improving-your-funding-experience/ |access-date=9 April 2022 |archive-date=20 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320054225/https://www.ukri.org/apply-for-funding/how-were-improving-your-funding-experience/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Process ====
Often scientists apply for research funding which a granting agency may (or may not) approve to financially support. These ''grants'' require a lengthy process as the granting agency can inquire about the researcher(s)'s background, the facilities used, the equipment needed, the time involved, and the overall potential of the scientific outcome. The process of grant writing and grant proposing is a somewhat delicate process for both the grantor and the grantee: the grantors want to choose the research that best fits their scientific principles, and the individual grantees want to apply for research in which they have the best chances but also in which they can build a body of work towards future scientific endeavors.{{Citation needed|date=September 2012}}

As of 2009, the [[Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council]] in the United Kingdom devised an alternative method of fund-distribution: the sandpit.<ref>{{cite news |last=Corbyn |first=Zoë |date=2009-07-02 |title='Sandpits' bring out worst in 'infantilised' researchers |newspaper=Times Higher Education |publisher=TSL Education |url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storycode=407201 |quote=Sandpits, which were devised by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, typically involve about 30 selected researchers from different areas who are brought together for several days of intensive discussions about a particular topic. [...] The wheels of such events are oiled with the promise of up to £1 million in funding, which is dished out at the end through a group peer-review process. |archive-date=2020-06-20 |access-date=2013-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620022849/https://www.timeshighereducation.com/search?e=404&search=story%20asp%20storycode%20407201 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Most universities have research administration offices to facilitate the interaction between the researcher and the granting agency.<ref>Gonzales, Evelina Garza, "External Funding and Tenure at Texas State University-San Marcos" (2009). Texas State University. Applied Research Projects. Paper 315.  http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/315 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200913065311/https://digital.library.txstate.edu/handle/10877/3445 |date=2020-09-13 }}</ref> "Research administration is all about service—service to our faculty, to our academic units, to the institution, and to our sponsors. To be of service, we first have to know what our customers want and then determine whether or not we are meeting those needs and expectations."<ref>Robert A. Killoren Jr., Associate Vice President for Research, Office of Sponsored Programs, Penn State U, Fall 2005.  From Lowry, Peggy (2006)  "Assessing the Sponsored Research Office". ''[http://www.aiseducation.com/RAG_product.html Sponsored Research Administration: A Guide to Effective Strategies and Recommended Practices]''. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422083401/http://www.aiseducation.com/RAG_product.html|date=2009-04-22}}</ref>

In the United States of America, the [[National Council of University Research Administrators]] serves its members and advances the field of research administration through education and professional development programs, the sharing of knowledge and experience, and by fostering a professional, collegial, and respected community.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

==== Hard money versus soft money ====
In academic contexts, ''hard money'' may refer to funding received from a government or other entity at regular intervals, thus providing a steady inflow of financial resources to the beneficiary. The antonym, ''soft money'', refers to funding provided only through competitive [[research grant]]s and the writing of grant proposals.<ref name="StackExchangeHardMoney">[http://academia.stackexchange.com/a/30627 "What is a soft-money research position?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200514004826/https://academia.stackexchange.com/questions/30621/what-is-a-soft-money-research-position/30627 |date=2020-05-14 }}, Academia StackExchange</ref>

Hard money is usually issued by the government for the advancement of certain projects or for the benefit of specific agencies. Community [[healthcare]], for instance, may be supported by the government by providing hard money. Since funds are disbursed regularly and continuously, the offices in charge of such projects are able to achieve their objectives more effectively than if they had been issued one-time grants.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

Individual jobs at a research institute may be classified as "hard-money positions" or "soft-money positions";<ref name="StackExchangeHardMoney" /> the former are expected to provide [[job security]] because their funding is secure in the long term, whereas individual "soft-money" positions may come and go with fluctuations in the number of grants awarded to an institution.{{cn|date=March 2025}}