Editing Gender equality (section)

===Post-war era===
{{Further|Anti-discrimination laws}}
{{Further|Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)}}
Since [[World War II]], the [[women's liberation]] movement and [[feminism]] have created a general movement towards recognition of [[women's rights]]. The [[United Nations]] and other international agencies have adopted several conventions which promote gender equality. These conventions have not been uniformly adopted by all countries, and include:
* The [[Convention against Discrimination in Education]] was adopted in 1960, and came into force in 1962 and 1968.
* The [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]] (CEDAW) was adopted in 1979 by the [[United Nations General Assembly]]. It has been described as an international [[bill of rights]] for women, which came into force on 3 September 1981.
* The [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]], a [[human rights]] declaration adopted by consensus at the [[World Conference on Human Rights]] on 25 June 1993 in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]. Women's rights are addressed at para 18.<ref>{{cite web | last = United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees | author-link = United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees | title = Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action | url = http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=topic&tocid=459d17822&toid=459b17a82&docid=3ae6b39ec&skip=O | publisher = [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] | access-date = 14 June 2015 | archive-date = 25 June 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180625185713/http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=topic&tocid=459d17822&toid=459b17a82&docid=3ae6b39ec&skip=O | url-status = live }}</ref>
* The [[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]] was adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 1993.
* In 1994, the twenty-year ''Cairo Programme of Action'' was adopted at the [[International Conference on Population and Development]] (ICPD) in [[Cairo]]. This [[Non-binding resolution|non binding]] programme-of-action asserted that governments have a responsibility to meet individuals' reproductive needs, rather than demographic targets. As such, it called for [[family planning]], [[reproductive rights]] services, and strategies to promote gender equality and stop violence against women.
* Also in 1994, in the Americas, the [[Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women]], known as the [[Belém do Pará Convention]], called for the end of violence and discrimination against women.<ref>{{cite web | last = Organization of American States | author-link = Organization of American States | title = Follow-up Mechanism to the Belém do Pará Convention (MESECVI): About the Belém do Pará Convention | publisher = [[Organization of American States]] | url = http://www.oas.org/en/mesecvi/convention.asp | access-date = 14 June 2015 | date = August 2009 | archive-date = 26 June 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150626043825/http://www.oas.org/en/mesecvi/convention.asp | url-status = live }}</ref>
* At the end of the [[Fourth World Conference on Women]], the UN adopted the [[Beijing Declaration]] on 15 September 1995 – a [[United Nations General Assembly resolution|resolution]] adopted to promulgate a set of principles concerning gender equality.
* The [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325]] (UNSRC 1325), which was adopted on 31 October 2000, deals with the rights and protection of women and girls during and after [[armed conflict]]s.
* The [[Maputo Protocol]] guarantees comprehensive rights to women, including the right to take part in the political process, to social and political equality with men, to control their [[reproductive health]], and an end to [[female genital cutting|female genital mutilation]]. It was adopted by the [[African Union]] in the form of a protocol to the [[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]] and came into force in 2005.
* The EU [[Directive (European Union)|directive]] ''Directive 2002/73/EC – equal treatment of 23 September 2002 amending Council Directive 76/207/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions'' states that: "Harassment and sexual harassment within the meaning of this Directive shall be deemed to be discrimination on the grounds of sex and therefore prohibited."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1976L0207:20021005:EN:PDF|title=Directive 2002/73/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of European Communities|date=9 February 1976|publisher=EUR-Lex Access to European Union law|format=PDF|access-date=28 January 2014|archive-date=4 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204010321/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1976L0207:20021005:EN:PDF|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The [[Council of Europe]]'s [[Istanbul Convention|Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence]], the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of violence against women,<ref>{{cite book | title = The Convention of Belém do Pará and the Istanbul Convention: a response to violence against women worldwide | url = https://www.oas.org/es/mesecvi/docs/CSW-SideEvent2014-Flyer-EN.pdf | publisher = [[Organization of American States]], [[Council of Europe]], [[Permanent Mission of France to the United Nations]] and Permanent Mission of Argentina to the United Nations | date = March 2014 | access-date = 2014-11-24 | archive-date = 2016-03-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093634/https://www.oas.org/es/mesecvi/docs/CSW-SideEvent2014-Flyer-EN.pdf | url-status = live }} CSW58 side event flyer 2014.</ref> came into force in 2014.
* The [[Council of Europe]]'s ''Gender Equality Strategy 2014–2017'', which has five strategic objectives:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=2105977&Site=COE&BackColorInternet=C3C3C3&BackColorIntranet=EDB021&BackColorLogged=F5D383|title=Committee of Ministers – Gender Equality Commission (GEC) – Gender Equality Strategy 2014–2017 [1183 meeting]|author=((Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers, CM document (CM)))|website=Wcd.coe.int|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=17 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617133718/https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=2105977&Site=COE&BackColorInternet=C3C3C3&BackColorIntranet=EDB021&BackColorLogged=F5D383|url-status=live}}</ref>
:*Combating [[gender stereotypes]] and sexism
:*Preventing and combating [[violence against women]]
:*Guaranteeing Equal Access of Women to Justice
:*Achieving balanced participation of women and men in political and public decision-making
:*Achieving [[Gender mainstreaming|Gender Mainstreaming]] in all policies and measures

Such [[legislation]] and [[affirmative action]] policies have been critical to bringing changes in societal attitudes. A 2015 Pew Research Center survey of citizens in 38 countries found that majorities in 37 of those 38 countries said that gender equality is at least "somewhat important", and a global median of 65% believe it is "very important" that women have the same rights as men.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/03/08/strong-global-support-for-gender-equality-especially-among-women/|title=Strong global support for gender equality, especially among women|last=Zainulbhai|first=Hani|date=2016-03-08|website=Pew Research|access-date=2016-08-12|archive-date=2016-08-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812193430/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/03/08/strong-global-support-for-gender-equality-especially-among-women/|url-status=live}}</ref> Most occupations are now equally available to men and women, in many countries.{{Refn|For example, many countries now permit women to serve in the [[armed forces]], the [[police|police forces]] and to be [[fire fighter]]s – occupations traditionally reserved for men. Although these continue to have a male majority, an increasing number of women are now active, especially in directive fields such as politics, and occupy high positions in business.|group=lower-roman}}

Similarly, men are increasingly working in occupations which in previous generations had been considered [[women's work]], such as [[nursing]], [[Maid|cleaning]] and [[child care]]. In domestic situations, the role of [[Parenting]] or child rearing is more commonly shared or not as widely considered to be an exclusively female role, so that women may be free to pursue a [[career]] after [[childbirth]]. For further information, see [[Shared earning/shared parenting marriage]].

Another manifestation of the change in social attitudes is the [[Married and maiden names#Feminism and preserving one's personal name|non-automatic taking by a woman of her husband's surname on marriage]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29804450|title=Why should women change their names on getting married?|last=Coulombeau|first=Sophie|date=1 November 2014|publisher=BBC|website=[[BBC News]]|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=14 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150514084133/http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29804450|url-status=live}}</ref>

A highly contentious issue relating to gender equality is the role of women in [[religious law|religiously orientated societies]].{{Refn|For example, [[Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam#Contents|the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam]] declared that women have equal dignity but not equal rights, and this was accepted by many predominantly Muslim countries.|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In some [[Christianity|Christian churches]], the practice of [[churching of women]] may still have elements of [[ritual purification]] and the [[Ordination of women]] to the priesthood may be restricted or forbidden.|group=lower-roman}} Some Christians or Muslims believe in [[Complementarianism]], a view that holds that men and women have different but complementing roles. This view may be in opposition to the views and goals of gender equality.
[[File:FEMEN Ukraine is not a brothel (cropped).jpg|thumb|From the documentary ''[[Ukraine Is Not a Brothel]]''. Radical group [[Femen]] protest against the increase in [[Sex tourism in Ukraine|sex tourism]] into Ukraine.]]
In addition, there are also non-Western countries of low religiosity where the contention surrounding gender equality remains. In China, a [[Sex-selective abortion and female infanticide#Cultural preference|cultural preference for a male child]] has resulted in a [[Missing women of Asia|shortfall of women]] in the population. [[Feminism in Japan|The feminist movement in Japan]] has made many strides which resulted in the [[Gender Equality Bureau]], but Japan still remains low in gender equality compared to other industrialized nations.Developing countries like Kenya, on the other hand, do not have official national statistics and have to rely on some gender-disaggregated statistics, usually funded by international organizations, for their analysis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Odhiambo |first=George |title=Women and higher education leadership in Kenya: a critical analysis |journal=Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management}}</ref>

The notion of gender equality, and of its degree of achievement in a certain country, is very complex because there are countries that have a history of a high level of gender equality in certain areas of life but not in other areas.{{Refn|An example is [[Finland]], which has offered very high opportunities to women in public/professional life but has had a weak legal approach to the issue of [[violence against women]], with the situation in this country having been called a [[paradox]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{Cite journal | last = Clarke | first = Kris | title = The paradoxical approach to intimate partner violence in Finland | journal = [[Tokiwa University#Publications|International Perspectives in Victimology]] | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–19 | doi = 10.5364/ipiv.6.1.9 | date = August 2011 | doi-broken-date = 1 November 2024 | url = http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/83438809/paradoxical-approach-intimate-partner-violence-finland | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208230306/http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/83438809/paradoxical-approach-intimate-partner-violence-finland | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2015-12-08 }}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.scottishaffairs.org/backiss/pdfs/sa48/sa48_McKie_and_Hearn.pdf |last1=McKie |first1=Linda |last2=Hearn |first2=Jeff |title=Gender-neutrality and gender equality: comparing and contrasting policy responses to 'domestic violence' in Finland and Scotland |journal=[[Scottish Affairs]] |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=85–107 |doi=10.3366/scot.2004.0043 |date=August 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021023708/http://www.scottishaffairs.org/backiss/pdfs/sa48/sa48_McKie_and_Hearn.pdf |archive-date=October 21, 2013}}</ref> "Finland is repeatedly reminded of its widespread problem of violence against women and recommended to take more efficient measures to deal with the situation. International criticism concentrates on the lack of measures to combat violence against women in general and in particular on the lack of a national action plan to combat such violence and on the lack of legislation on domestic violence. (...) Compared to Sweden, Finland has been slower to reform legislation on violence against women. In Sweden, domestic violence was already illegal in 1864, while in Finland such violence was not outlawed until 1970, over a hundred years later. In Sweden the punishment of victims of incest was abolished in 1937 but not until 1971 in Finland. Rape within marriage was criminalised in Sweden in 1962, but the equivalent Finnish legislation only came into force in 1994 — making Finland one of the last European countries to criminalise marital rape. In addition, assaults taking place on private property did not become impeachable offences in Finland until 1995. Only in 1997 did victims of sexual offences and domestic violence in Finland become entitled to government-funded counselling and support services for the duration of their court cases."<ref name=Amnesty_Finland group=upper-roman>{{cite book | author = ((Danish, Swedish, Finnish and Norwegian sections of Amnesty International)) | chapter = Rape and human rights in Finland | title = Case closed: rape and human rights in the Nordic countries | url = https://amnesty.no/sites/default/files/news_attaches/Aksjonsveiledning%208.%20mars%202010%20-%20case%20closed.doc | pages = 89–91 | publisher = [[Amnesty International]] | date = March 2010 | access-date = 2015-12-02}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|[[Denmark]] received harsh criticism for inadequate laws in regard to [[sexual violence]] in a 2008 report produced by [[Amnesty International]],<ref name=Amnesty_Finland group=upper-roman /> which described Danish laws as "inconsistent with international human rights standards".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite book | last = Amnesty International | author-link = Amnesty International | title = Denmark: human rights violations and concerns in the context of counter-terrorism, immigration-detention, forcible return of rejected asylum-seekers and violence against women | url = http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/AI_Denmark_November2010.pdf | publisher = [[Amnesty International]] | date = May 2011 | access-date = 2015-06-11 | archive-date = 2015-02-24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150224200419/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/AI_Denmark_November2010.pdf | url-status = live }} Amnesty International submission to the UN Universal Periodic Review, May 2011.</ref> This led to Denmark reforming its sexual offenses legislation in 2013.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.dk/nyhed/amnesty/ny-voldtaegtslovgivning-er-en-sejr-danske-kvinders-retssikkerhed|title=Ny voldtægtslovgivning er en sejr for danske kvinders retssikkerhed|website=Amnesty.dk – Amnesty International|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=2 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702182036/http://www.amnesty.dk/nyhed/amnesty/ny-voldtaegtslovgivning-er-en-sejr-danske-kvinders-retssikkerhed|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{cite news|url=http://www.b.dk/nationalt/slut-med-konerabat-for-voldtaegt|title=Slut med "konerabat" for voldtægt|date=3 June 2013|website=www.b.dk|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=3 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403003651/http://www.b.dk/nationalt/slut-med-konerabat-for-voldtaegt|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=164192|title=Straffeloven – Bekendtgørelse af straffeloven|website=Retsinformation.dk|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=15 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215123516/https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=164192|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Indeed, there is a need for caution when categorizing countries by the level of gender equality that they have achieved.<ref>{{cite book|title=Working with men in health and social care|url=https://archive.org/details/workingwithmenhe00feat|url-access=limited|last2=Rivett|first2=Mark|last3=Scourfield|first3=Jonathan|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4129-1850-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/workingwithmenhe00feat/page/n33 27]|last1=Featherstone|first1=Brid|publisher=SAGE Publications }}</ref> According to [[Mala Htun]] and [[S. Laurel Weldon]] "gender policy is not one issue but many" and:<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Htun | first1 = Mala | last2 = Weldon | first2 = S. Laurel | title = When and why do governments promote women's rights? Toward a comparative politics of states and sex equality | journal = Delivery at the Conference Toward a Comparative Politics of Gender: Advancing the Discipline Along Interdisciplinary Boundaries, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, October | url = https://www.academia.edu/2694918 | date = 2007 | access-date = 2018-06-25 | archive-date = 2021-09-25 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210925000227/https://www.academia.edu/2694918 | url-status = live }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20160509164035/http://government.arts.cornell.edu/assets/psac/sp10/Htun_PSAC_Feb12.pdf Work in progress pdf.]
Paper prepared for delivery at the [[American Political Science Association]], Annual Meeting, Chicago, 29 August – 2 September 2007.</ref>
{{Blockquote|When Costa Rica has a better maternity leave than the United States, and Latin American countries are quicker to adopt policies addressing violence against women than the Nordic countries, one at least ought to consider the possibility that fresh ways of grouping states would further the study of gender politics.}}

Not all beliefs relating to gender equality have been popularly adopted. For example, [[topfreedom]], the right to be bare breasted in public, frequently applies only to males and has remained a marginal issue. [[Breastfeeding in public]] is now more commonly tolerated, especially in semi-private places such as restaurants.<ref>{{cite book | last = Jordan | first = Tim | title = Social Change (Sociology and society) | publisher = Blackwell | year = 2002 |isbn=978-0-631-23311-4 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/socialchange0000unse }}</ref>