Editing Genetic testing (section)

==Risks and limitations==
The physical risks associated with most genetic tests are very small, particularly for those tests that require only a blood sample or buccal smear (a procedure that samples cells from the inside surface of the cheek). The procedures used for prenatal testing carry a small but non-negligible risk of losing the pregnancy (miscarriage) because they require a sample of amniotic fluid or tissue from around the fetus.<ref name=NIHrisks>{{cite web| work = Genetics Home Reference | location = Bethesda (MD) | publisher = National Library of Medicine (US) | title = What are the risks and limitations of genetic testing?|url=https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/testing/riskslimitations |date=November 15, 2016}}</ref>

Many of the risks associated with genetic testing involve the emotional, social, or financial consequences of the test results. People may feel angry, depressed, anxious, or guilty about their results. The potential negative impact of genetic testing has led to an increasing recognition of a "right not to know".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Andorno R | title = The right not to know: an autonomy based approach | journal = Journal of Medical Ethics | volume = 30 | issue = 5 | pages = 435–439 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15467071 | pmc = 1733927 | doi = 10.1136/jme.2002.001578 }}</ref> In some cases, genetic testing creates tension within a family because the results can reveal information about other family members in addition to the person who is tested.<ref>{{cite news| vauthors = Wendelsdorf K |title=You have a genetic disorder: Should your family be told they might carry the mutation?|url=https://www.geneticliteracyproject.org/2013/10/01/you-have-a-genetic-disorder-should-your-family-be-told-they-too-might-carry-the-harmful-mutation/|work=Genetic Literacy Project|date=1 October 2013}}</ref> The possibility of [[genetic discrimination]] in employment or insurance is also a concern. Some individuals avoid genetic testing out of fear it will affect their ability to purchase insurance or find a job.<ref>Amy Harmon, [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/24/health/24dna.html?_r=2&scp=5&sq=Genetic&st=nyt&oref=slogin&oref=slogin "Insurance Fears Lead Many to Shun DNA Tests,"] [[The New York Times]], February 24, 2008</ref> Health insurers do not currently require applicants for coverage to undergo genetic testing, and when insurers encounter genetic information, it is subject to the same confidentiality protections as any other sensitive health information.<ref>[http://www.actuary.org/pdf/health/geneticmono.pdf "Genetic Information and Medical Expense Insurance"], [[American Academy of Actuaries]], June 2000</ref> In the United States, the use of genetic information is governed by the [[Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act]] (GINA) (see discussion below in the section on government regulation).

Genetic testing can provide only limited information about an inherited condition. The test often can't determine if a person will show symptoms of a disorder, how severe the symptoms will be, or whether the disorder will progress over time. Another major limitation is the lack of treatment strategies for many genetic disorders once they are diagnosed.<ref name=NIHrisks/>

Another limitation to genetic testing for a hereditary linked cancer, is the variants of unknown clinical significance. Because the human genome has over 22,000 genes, there are 3.5 million variants in the average person's genome. These variants of unknown clinical significance means there is a change in the DNA sequence, however the increase for cancer is unclear because it is unknown if the change affects the gene's function.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = King E, Mahon SM | title = Genetic Testing: Challenges and Changes in Testing for Hereditary Cancer Syndromes | journal = Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 589–598 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 28945723 | doi = 10.1188/17.cjon.589-598 | s2cid = 7240065 }}</ref>

A genetics professional can explain in detail the benefits, risks, and limitations of a particular test. It is important that any person who is considering genetic testing understand and weigh these factors before making a decision.<ref name=NIHrisks/>

Other risks include [[Incidental medical findings|incidental findings]]—a discovery of some possible problem found while looking for something else.<ref>{{cite news| vauthors = Wendelsdorf K |title=Personal gene maps: Is there such a thing as too much information about our DNA?|url=https://www.geneticliteracyproject.org/2013/09/17/part-i-whole-genome-sequencing-incidental-findings-and-mandatory-testing/|work=Genetic Literacy Project|date=17 September 2013}}</ref> In 2013 the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) recommended that certain genes always be included any time a genomic sequencing was done, and that labs should report the results.<ref>{{cite news| vauthors = Powledge TM |title=What should be done with unsettling 'incidental findings' in gene screens?|url=https://www.geneticliteracyproject.org/2015/03/24/what-should-be-done-with-unsettling-incidental-findings-in-gene-screens/|work=Genetic Literacy Project|date=24 March 2015}}</ref>

DNA studies have been criticised for a range of methodological problems and providing misleading, interpretations on racial classifications.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lieberman L, Jackson FL |title=Race and Three Models of Human Origin |journal=American Anthropologist |date=1995 |volume=97 |issue=2 |pages=231–242 |doi=10.1525/aa.1995.97.2.02a00030 |jstor=681958 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/681958 |issn=0002-7294|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Celenko T |title="The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians" In Egypt in Africa |date=1996 |publisher=Indianapolis Museum of Art |location=Indianapolis, Ind. |isbn=0936260645 |pages=20–33}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown RA, Armelagos GJ |title=Apportionment of racial diversity: A review |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |date=2001 |volume=10, Issue 1 |issue=34–40 |pages=34–40 |doi=10.1002/1520-6505(2001)10:1<34::AID-EVAN1011>3.0.CO;2-P |s2cid=22845356 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Eltis D, Bradley KR, Perry C, Engerman SL, Cartledge P, Richardson D |title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery | volume = 2, AD 500-AD 1420 |date=12 August 2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-84067-5 |page=150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DskwEAAAQBAJ&dq=gourdine+critique+their+methods&pg=PA150 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | veditors = Candelora D, Ben-Marzouk N, Cooney K |title=Ancient Egyptian society : challenging assumptions, exploring approaches |date=31 August 2022 |location=Abingdon, Oxon | publisher = Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-367-43463-2 |pages=101–122}}</ref>