Editing Genome (section)

== Sequencing and mapping ==
{{Further|Whole genome sequencing|Genome project}}
A '''genome sequence''' is the complete list of the [[nucleotide]]s (A, C, G, and T for DNA genomes) that make up all the [[chromosome]]s of an individual or a species. Within a species, the vast majority of nucleotides are identical between individuals, but sequencing multiple individuals is necessary to understand the genetic diversity. [[File:Part of DNA sequence prototypification of complete genome of virus 5418 nucleotides.gif|thumb|right|350 px|Part of DNA sequence – prototypification of complete genome of virus]]
In 1976, [[Walter Fiers]] at the [[University of Ghent]] (Belgium) was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a viral RNA-genome ([[Bacteriophage MS2]]). The next year, [[Fred Sanger]] completed the first DNA-genome sequence: [[Phi-X174 phage|Phage X174]], of 5386 base pairs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beowulf.org.uk/|title=All about genes|website=beowulf.org.uk}}</ref> The first bacterial genome to be sequenced was that of [[Haemophilus influenzae]], completed by a team at [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] in 1995. A few months later, the first eukaryotic genome was completed, with sequences of the 16 chromosomes of budding yeast ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' published as the result of a European-led effort begun in the mid-1980s. The first genome sequence for an [[Archaea|archaeon]], ''[[Methanococcus jannaschii]]'', was completed in 1996, again by The Institute for Genomic Research.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jcvi.org/media-center/tigr-scientists-complete-first-genome-sequence-oral-pathogen-associated-severe-adult#:~:text=The%20Institute%20for%20Genomic%20Research%20(TIGR)%20is%20a%20not%2Dfor%2Dprofit&text=genome%20sequence%20of%20an%20archaea%20(Methanococcus%20jannaschii%2C%20in%201996) |title=TIGR Scientists Complete the First Genome Sequence of an Oral Pathogen Associated with Severe Adult Periodontal Disease |date=June 12, 2001}}</ref>

The development of new technologies has made genome sequencing dramatically cheaper and easier, and the number of complete genome sequences is growing rapidly. The [[US National Institutes of Health]] maintains one of several comprehensive databases of genomic information.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=Genome&itool=toolbar |title=Genome Home |date=2010-12-08 |access-date=27 January 2011}}</ref> Among the thousands of completed genome sequencing projects include those for [[rice]], a [[mus musculus|mouse]], the plant ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]'', the [[puffer fish]], and the bacteria [[Escherichia coli|E. coli]]. In December 2013, scientists first sequenced the entire ''genome'' of a [[Neanderthal]], an extinct species of [[Archaic humans|humans]]. The genome was extracted from the [[toe bone]] of a 130,000-year-old Neanderthal found in a [[Denisova Cave|Siberian cave]].<ref name="NYT-20131218">{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |name-list-style = vanc |author-link=Carl Zimmer |title=Toe Fossil Provides Complete Neanderthal Genome |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/19/science/toe-fossil-provides-complete-neanderthal-genome.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/19/science/toe-fossil-provides-complete-neanderthal-genome.html |archive-date=2022-01-02 |url-access=limited |url-status=live |date=18 December 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=18 December 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="NAT-20131218">{{cite journal |vauthors = Prüfer K, Racimo F, Patterson N, Jay F, Sankararaman S, Sawyer S, Heinze A, Renaud G, Sudmant PH, de Filippo C, Li H, Mallick S, Dannemann M, Fu Q, Kircher M, Kuhlwilm M, Lachmann M, Meyer M, Ongyerth M, Siebauer M, Theunert C, Tandon A, Moorjani P, Pickrell J, Mullikin JC, Vohr SH, Green RE, Hellmann I, Johnson PL, Blanche H, Cann H, Kitzman JO, Shendure J, Eichler EE, Lein ES, Bakken TE, Golovanova LV, Doronichev VB, Shunkov MV, Derevianko AP, Viola B, Slatkin M, Reich D, Kelso J, Pääbo S |display-authors = 6 |title = The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains |journal = Nature |volume = 505 |issue = 7481 |pages = 43–49 |date = January 2014 |pmid = 24352235 |pmc = 4031459 |doi = 10.1038/nature12886 |bibcode = 2014Natur.505...43P }}</ref>