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===Spacecraft=== {{Main|Atmospheric entry#Thermal protection systems|Aeroshell}} {{See also|Atmospheric entry|Reusable launch system}} {{unreferenced section|date=August 2014}} [[File:Apollo 12 heat shield.JPG|thumb|[[Apollo 12]] capsule's ablative heat shield (after use) on display at the [[Virginia Air and Space Center]]]] [[Image:Discovery's heat shield.jpg|thumb|Thermal soak aerodynamic heat shield used on the Space Shuttle]] [[Spacecraft]] that land on a [[planet]] with an [[atmosphere]], such as [[Earth]], [[Mars]], and [[Venus]], currently do so by entering the atmosphere at high speeds, depending on [[air resistance]] rather than rocket power to slow them down. A side effect of this method of atmospheric re-entry is [[aerodynamic heating]], which can be highly destructive to the structure of an unprotected or faulty spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.phys.ttu.edu/~cmyles/Phys4304/Papers/Dynamics-of-Atmospheric-Rentry.doc |title=Dynamics of Atmospheric Rentry |access-date=2016-08-23 |archive-date=2018-07-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708015436/http://www.phys.ttu.edu/~cmyles/Phys4304/Papers/Dynamics-of-Atmospheric-Rentry.doc |url-status=live }}</ref> An aerodynamic heat shield consists of a protective layer of special materials to dissipate the heat. Two basic types of aerodynamic heat shield have been used: *An [[ablative heat shield]] consists of a layer of plastic resin, the outer surface of which is heated to a gas, which then carries the heat away by [[convection]]. Such shields were used on the [[Vostok (spacecraft)|Vostok]], [[Voskhod (spacecraft)|Voskhod]], [[Project Mercury#Spacecraft|Mercury]], [[Project Gemini#Spacecraft|Gemini]], and [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo]] spacecraft, and are currently used by the [[SpaceX Dragon 2]], [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]], and [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] spacecraft. **The Soviet [[Vostok 1]], the first crewed spacecraft, used ablative heat shielding made from asbestos fabric in resin.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Бобков В. Космический корабль "Восток". |url=https://epizodsspace.airbase.ru/bibl/k-r/1991/4-5vostok.html |access-date=2024-03-22 |website=epizodsspace.airbase.ru}}</ref> The succeeding Mercury and Gemini missions both used fiber glass in the resin, while the Apollo spacecraft using a quartz fiber reinforced resin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Venkatapathy |first=Ethiraj |date=2019-10-21 |title=Ablators - From Apollo to Future Missions to Moon, Mars and Beyond |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20190032222 |journal=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |language=en}}</ref> The first use of a super-light ablator (SLA) for spacecraft purposes was for the [[Viking program|Viking Landers]] in 1976.<ref name=":0" /> SLA would also be utilized for the [[Mars Pathfinder|Pathfinder mission]].<ref name=":0" /> Phenolic impregnated carbon ablators (PICA) was used for the Stardust mission launched in 1999.<ref name=":0" /> *A [[Atmospheric entry#Thermal soak|thermal soak heat shield]] uses an insulating material to absorb and radiate the heat away from the spacecraft structure. This type was used on the [[Space Shuttle]], with the intent for the shield to be reused with minimal refurbishment in between launches.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/698332185 |title=Wings in orbit: scientific and engineering legacies of the space shuttle, 1971-2010 |date=2010 |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |isbn=978-0-16-086846-7 |editor-last=Hale |editor-first=Wayne |series=NASA/SP |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=698332185 |editor-last2=Lane |editor-first2=Helen W. |editor-last3=United States}}</ref> The heat shield on the space shuttle consisted of [[Space Shuttle thermal protection system#Materials|ceramic or composite tiles]] over most of the vehicle surface, with [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] material on the highest [[heat load]] points (the nose and wing leading edges).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Meechan |first1=C. J. |last2=Miles |first2=F. |last3=Ledsome |first3=C. |last4=Fraser |first4=D. O. |last5=Whitehouse |first5=D. |date=1984 |title=The Space Shuttle System [and Discussion] |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/37389 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences |volume=312 |issue=1519 |pages=89–102 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1984.0053 |jstor=37389 |issn=0080-4614|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This protected the orbiter when it reached a temperature of 1,648 degrees Celsius during reentry.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/698332185 |title=Wings in orbit: scientific and engineering legacies of the space shuttle, 1971-2010 |date=2010 |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |isbn=978-0-16-086846-7 |editor-last=Hale |editor-first=Wayne |series=NASA/SP |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=698332185 |editor-last2=Lane |editor-first2=Helen W. |editor-last3=United States}}</ref> The Soviet spaceplane, known as the [[Buran (spacecraft)|Buran]], also used TPS tiles that are similar to the American Shuttles. With the Buran also using a ceramic tiles on the bottom of the orbiter, and carbon-carbon on the nose cone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kondrashov |first=E. K. |date=2023 |title=Thermotactic Inorganic and Polymeric Coatings for the Buran Spaceplane |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1134/S1995421223020120 |journal=Polymer Science, Series D |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=396–400 |doi=10.1134/S1995421223020120 |issn=1995-4212|url-access=subscription }}</ref> **Many problems arose with the tiles used on the Space Shuttle, while minor damage to the heat shield was somewhat commonplace. Major damage to the heat shield almost caused the destruction of Space shuttle Atlantis in 1988 and did cause the loss of Columbia in 2003.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Leinbach |first1=Micheal D. |title=Bringing Columbia Home: The Untold True Story of a Lost Space Shuttle and Her Crew |last2=Ward |first2=Jonathan H. |publisher=Arcade Publishing |year=2020 |isbn=9781948924610 |location=New York, NY |pages=229–234}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Leinbach |first1=Micheal D. |title=Bringing Columbia Home: The Untold True Story of a Lost Space Shuttle and Her Crew |last2=Ward |first2=Jonathan H. |publisher=Arcade Publishing |year=2020 |isbn=9781948924610 |location=New York, NY |pages=229–234}}</ref><ref name="AmericaSpace 2018-12-09">{{cite news |last=Evans |first=Ben |date=December 9, 2018 |title='Dying All Tensed-Up': 30 Years Since the Troubled Secret Mission of STS-27 |url=https://www.americaspace.com/2018/12/09/dying-all-tensed-up-30-years-since-the-troubled-secret-mission-of-sts-27/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106084824/https://www.americaspace.com/2018/12/09/dying-all-tensed-up-30-years-since-the-troubled-secret-mission-of-sts-27/ |archive-date=January 6, 2021 |work=AmericaSpace}}</ref> With possible inflatable [[#Spacecraft|heat shield]]s, as developed by the US (Low Earth Orbit Flight Test Inflatable Decelerator - LOFTID)<ref name="noaa-20190703">{{cite web |last=Marder |first=Jenny |url=https://www.jpss.noaa.gov/news.html?122 |title=Inflatable Decelerator Will Hitch a Ride on the JPSS-2 Satellite |publisher=[[NOAA]] |date=3 July 2019 |access-date=30 October 2019 |archive-date=1 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001050140/https://www.jpss.noaa.gov/news.html?122 |url-status=live }}</ref> and China,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/2020-05/05/c_1125945037.htm|title="胖五"家族迎新 送新一代载人飞船试验船升空——长征五号B运载火箭首飞三大看点 (LM5 Family in focus: next generation crewed spacecraft and other highlight of the Long March 5B maiden flight)|language=zh|website=Xinhua News|author=Xinhua Editorial Board|date=5 May 2020|access-date=29 October 2020|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807093711/http://www.xinhuanet.com/2020-05/05/c_1125945037.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> single-use rockets like the [[Space Launch System]] are considered to be retrofitted with such heat shields to salvage the expensive engines, possibly reducing the costs of launches significantly.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://westeastspace.com/2020/05/07/is-chinas-inflatable-space-tech-a-400-million-cost-savings-for-nasas-sls/ |date=7 May 2020 |access-date=29 October 2020 |website=westeastspace.com |author=Bill D'Zio |title=Is China's inflatable space tech a $400 Million Cost savings for NASA's SLS? |archive-date=10 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510233336/https://westeastspace.com/2020/05/07/is-chinas-inflatable-space-tech-a-400-million-cost-savings-for-nasas-sls/ |url-status=live }}</ref> On November 10, 2022, LOFTID was launched using an [[Atlas V]] rocket and, then, detached in order to reenter the atmosphere.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=2023-11-17 |title=The Heat is On! NASA's "Flawless" Heat Shield Demo Passes the Test - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/missions/tech-demonstration/loftid/the-heat-is-on-nasas-flawless-heat-shield-demo-passes-the-test/ |access-date=2024-04-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> The outer layer of the heat shield consisted of a silicon carbide ceramic.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-25 |title=NASA Inflatable Heat Shield Finds Strength in Flexibility - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/missions/tech-demonstration/loftid/nasa-inflatable-heat-shield-finds-strength-in-flexibility/ |access-date=2024-04-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> The recovered LOFTID had minimal damage.'''<ref name=":12" />'''
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