Editing History of technology (section)

=== Ancient ===
{{Main|Ancient technology}}

==== Copper and Bronze Ages ====
{{Main|Bronze Age}}

[[File:Sword bronze age (2nd version).jpg|thumb|upright|A late [[Bronze Age sword]] or dagger blade]]

Metallic copper occurs on the surface of weathered copper ore deposits and copper was used before copper [[smelting]] was known. Copper smelting is believed to have originated when the technology of pottery [[kiln]]s allowed sufficiently high temperatures.<ref name="Tylecote_1992"/> The concentration of various elements such as arsenic increase with depth in copper ore deposits and smelting of these ores yields [[arsenical bronze]], which can be sufficiently [[work hardening|work hardened]] to be suitable for making tools.<ref name="Tylecote_1992"/>

[[Bronze]] is an alloy of copper with tin; the latter being found in relatively few deposits globally caused a long time to elapse before true tin bronze became widespread. (See: [[Tin sources and trade in ancient times]]) Bronze was a major advancement over stone as a material for making tools, both because of its mechanical properties like strength and ductility and because it could be cast in molds to make intricately shaped objects. Bronze significantly advanced shipbuilding technology with better tools and bronze nails. Bronze nails replaced the old method of attaching boards of the hull with cord woven through drilled holes.<ref>{{cite book
|title=The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World |last=Paine |first= Lincoln |year= 2013 |publisher =Random House, LLC|location= New York}}</ref> Better ships enabled long-distance trade and the advance of civilization. 
   
This technological trend apparently began in the [[Fertile Crescent]] and spread outward over time.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} These developments were not, and still are not, universal. The [[three-age system]] does not accurately describe the technology history of groups outside of [[Eurasia]], and does not apply at all in the case of some isolated populations, such as the [[Spinifex People]], the [[Sentinelese people|Sentinelese]], and various Amazonian tribes, which still make use of Stone Age technology, and have not developed agricultural or metal technology. These villages preserve traditional customs in the face of global modernity, exhibiting a remarkable resistance to the rapid advancement of technology.

==== Iron Age ====
{{Main|Iron Age}}
[[File:Axe of iron from Swedish Iron Age, found at Gotland, Sweden.jpg|thumb|upright|An [[axe]]head made of iron, dating from the Swedish [[Iron Age]]]]
Before iron smelting was developed the only iron was obtained from meteorites and is usually identified by having nickel content. [[Meteoric iron]] was rare and valuable, but was sometimes used to make tools and other implements, such as fish hooks.

The '''[[Iron Age]]''' involved the adoption of  [[bloomery|iron smelting]] technology. It generally replaced bronze and made it possible to produce tools which were stronger, lighter and cheaper to make than bronze equivalents. The raw materials to make iron, such as ore and limestone, are far more abundant than copper and especially tin ores. Consequently, iron was produced in many areas.

It was not possible to mass manufacture steel or pure iron because of the high temperatures required. Furnaces could reach melting temperature but the crucibles and molds needed for melting and casting had not been developed. Steel could be produced by [[forging]] bloomery iron to reduce the carbon content in a somewhat controllable way, but steel produced by this method was not homogeneous.

In many Eurasian cultures, the Iron Age was the last major step before the development of written language, though again this was not universally the case.

In Europe, large [[hill fort]]s were built either as a refuge in time of war or sometimes as permanent settlements. In some cases, existing forts from the Bronze Age were expanded and enlarged. The pace of land clearance using the more effective iron axes increased, providing more farmland to support the growing population.

==== Mesopotamia ====
[[Mesopotamia]] (modern Iraq) and its peoples ([[Sumer]]ians, [[Akkad (city)|Akkadians]], [[Assyria]]ns and [[Babylonia]]ns) lived in cities from c. 4000&nbsp;BC,<ref>JN Postgate, ''Early Mesopotamia'', Routledge (1992)</ref> and developed a sophisticated architecture in mud-brick and stone,<ref>See entries under [[Nineveh]] and [[Babylon]]</ref> including the use of the [[true arch]]. The walls of Babylon were so massive they were quoted as a [[Wonder of the World]]. They developed extensive water systems; canals for transport and irrigation in the alluvial south, and catchment systems stretching for tens of kilometers in the hilly north. Their palaces had sophisticated drainage systems.<ref name=Dalley2013>S Dalley, ''The Mystery of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon'', Oxford University Press(2013)</ref>

Writing was invented in Mesopotamia, using the [[cuneiform]] script. Many records on clay tablets and stone inscriptions have survived. These civilizations were early adopters of bronze technologies which they used for tools, weapons and monumental statuary. By 1200&nbsp;BC they could cast objects 5 m long in a single piece.

Several of the six classic [[simple machines]] were invented in Mesopotamia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moorey |first1=Peter Roger Stuart |title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence |date=1999 |publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]] |isbn=9781575060422}}</ref> Mesopotamians have been credited with the invention of the wheel. The [[wheel and axle]] mechanism first appeared with the [[potter's wheel]], invented in [[Mesopotamia]] (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East|author=D.T. Potts|year=2012|page=285}}</ref> This led to the invention of the [[wheeled vehicle]] in Mesopotamia during the early 4th millennium BC. Depictions of wheeled [[wagon]]s found on [[clay tablet]] [[pictographs]] at the [[Uruk#Eanna District|Eanna district]] of [[Uruk]] are dated between 3700 and 3500 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Attema |first1=P. A. J. |last2=Los-Weijns |first2=Ma |last3=Pers |first3=N. D. Maring-Van der |title=Bronocice, Flintbek, Uruk, JEbel Aruda and Arslantepe: The Earliest Evidence Of Wheeled Vehicles In Europe And The Near East |journal=Palaeohistoria |date=December 2006 |volume=47/48 |publisher=[[University of Groningen]] |pages=10–28 (11)}}</ref> The [[lever]] was used in the [[shadoof]] water-lifting device, the first [[Crane (machine)|crane]] machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Paipetis |first1=S. A. |last2=Ceccarelli |first2=Marco |title=The Genius of Archimedes – 23 Centuries of Influence on Mathematics, Science and Engineering: Proceedings of an International Conference held at Syracuse, Italy, June 8–10, 2010 |date=2010 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9789048190911 |page=416}}</ref> and then in [[ancient Egyptian technology]] circa 2000 BC.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Faiella |first1=Graham |title=The Technology of Mesopotamia |date=2006 |publisher=[[The Rosen Publishing Group]] |isbn=9781404205604 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGMyBTS0-v0C&pg=PA27}}</ref> The earliest evidence of [[pulley]]s date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC.<ref name="Eisenbrauns">{{cite book |last1=Moorey |first1=Peter Roger Stuart |title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientmesopotam00moor |url-access=limited |date=1999 |publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]] |isbn=9781575060422 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientmesopotam00moor/page/n12 4]}}</ref>

The [[Screw (simple machine)|screw]], the last of the simple machines to be invented,<ref name="Woods">{{cite book  | last =  Woods| first = Michael 
|author2=Mary B. Woods| title = Ancient Machines: From Wedges to Waterwheels| publisher = Twenty-First Century Books| year = 2000| location = US| pages = 58| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=E1tzW_aDnxsC&pg=PA58| isbn = 0-8225-2994-7}}</ref> first appeared in Mesopotamia during the [[Neo-Assyrian]] period (911–609) BC.<ref name="Eisenbrauns"/> The Assyrian King [[Sennacherib]] (704–681&nbsp;BC) claims to have invented automatic sluices and to have been the first to use water [[screw pump]]s, of up to 30 tons weight, which were cast using two-part clay molds rather than by the '[[Lost-wax casting|lost wax]]' process.<ref name=Dalley2013/> The Jerwan Aqueduct (c. 688&nbsp;BC) is made with stone arches and lined with waterproof concrete.<ref>T Jacobsen and S Lloyd, ''Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan'', Chicago University Press, (1935)</ref>

The [[Babylonian astronomical diaries]] spanned 800 years. They enabled meticulous astronomers to plot the motions of the planets and to predict eclipses.<ref>CBF Walker, ''Astronomy before the telescope,'' British Museum Press, (1996)</ref>

[[File:Overshot water wheel schematic.svg|thumb|right|The compartmented [[water wheel]], here its overshot version]]

The earliest evidence of [[water wheel]]s and [[watermill]]s date back to the [[ancient Near East]] in the 4th century BC,<ref>Terry S. Reynolds, ''Stronger than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel'', JHU Press, 2002 {{ISBN|0-8018-7248-0}}, p. 14</ref> specifically in the [[Persian Empire]] before 350&nbsp;BC, in the regions of Mesopotamia (Iraq) and [[Persia]] (Iran).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Selin |first1=Helaine |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9789401714167 |page=282 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA282}}</ref> This pioneering use of [[water power]] constituted the first human-devised motive force not to rely on muscle power (besides the [[sail]]).

==== Egypt ====
The [[Egyptians]], known for building pyramids centuries before the creation of modern tools, invented and used many simple machines, such as the [[inclined plane|ramp]] to aid construction processes. Historians and archaeologists have found evidence that the [[pyramid]]s were built using three of what is called the [[Simple machine|Six Simple Machines]], from which all machines are based. These machines are the [[inclined plane]], the [[wedge]], and the [[lever]], which allowed the ancient Egyptians to move millions of limestone blocks which weighed approximately 3.5 tons (7,000 lbs.) each into place to create structures like the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]], which is {{convert|481|ft|m|abbr=off|sp=us}} high.<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient Machines: From Grunts to Graffiti|last=Wood|first=Michael|publisher=Runestone Press|year=2000|isbn=0-8225-2996-3|location=Minneapolis, MN|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ancientcommunica00wood/page/35 35, 36]|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientcommunica00wood/page/35}}</ref>

They also made writing medium similar to paper from [[papyrus]], which Joshua Mark states is the foundation for modern paper. Papyrus is a plant (cyperus papyrus) which grew in plentiful amounts in the Egyptian Delta and throughout the Nile River Valley during ancient times. The papyrus was harvested by field workers and brought to processing centers where it was cut into thin strips. The strips were then laid-out side by side and covered in plant resin. The second layer of strips was laid on perpendicularly, then both pressed together until the sheet was dry. The sheets were then joined to form a roll and later used for writing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Papyrus/|title=Egyptian Papyrus|last=Mark|first=Joshua J.|date=8 November 2016|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=2019-07-29}}</ref>

Egyptian society made several significant advances during dynastic periods in many areas of technology. According to Hossam Elanzeery, they were the first civilization to use timekeeping devices such as sundials, shadow clocks, and obelisks and successfully leveraged their knowledge of astronomy to create a calendar model that society still uses today. They developed shipbuilding technology that saw them progress from papyrus reed vessels to cedar wood ships while also pioneering the use of rope trusses and stem-mounted rudders. The Egyptians also used their knowledge of anatomy to lay the foundation for many modern medical techniques and practiced the earliest known version of neuroscience. Elanzeery also states that they used and furthered mathematical science, as evidenced in the building of the pyramids.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lindau-nobel.org/science-in-ancient-egypt-today-connecting-eras/|title=Science in Ancient Egypt & Today: Connecting Eras|last=Elanzeery|first=Hossam|website=The Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings|date=13 June 2016|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-29}}</ref>

Ancient Egyptians also invented and pioneered many food technologies that have become the basis of modern food technology processes. Based on paintings and reliefs found in tombs, as well as archaeological artifacts, scholars like Paul T Nicholson believe that the Ancient Egyptians established systematic farming practices, engaged in cereal processing, brewed beer and baked bread, processed meat, practiced viticulture and created the basis for modern wine production, and created condiments to complement, preserve and mask the flavors of their food.<ref>{{cite book|title= Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology|last= Nicholson |first= Paul T. |year= 2000|publisher =Cambridge University Press|location= Cambridge, UK |isbn=0-521-45257-0 |pages=505–650}}</ref>

==== Indus Valley ====
The [[Indus Valley Civilization]], situated in a resource-rich area (in modern [[Pakistan]] and northwestern India), is notable for its early application of city planning, [[Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation|sanitation technologies]], and plumbing.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Teresi| first1 = Dick| author-link = Dick Teresi| title = Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science—from the Babylonians to the Maya| publisher = Simon & Schuster| year = 2002| location = New York| pages = [https://archive.org/details/lostdiscoveriesa00tere/page/351 351–352]| isbn = 0-684-83718-8| url = https://archive.org/details/lostdiscoveriesa00tere/page/351}}</ref> Indus Valley construction and architecture, called '[[Vaastu Shastra]]', suggests a thorough understanding of materials engineering, hydrology, and sanitation.

==== China ====
The Chinese made many first-known discoveries and developments. Major [[History of science and technology in China|technological contributions from China]] include the earliest known form of the  [[binary code]] and epigenetic sequencing,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schönberger |first=Martin |title=I Ching and the Genetic Code: The Hidden Key to Life |publisher=Aurora Press |year=1992 |isbn=094335837X |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Compton |first=John |title=The Secret Computer of the Ancient Gods |publisher=Compton/Kowanz Publications |year=2022 |isbn=9780955448256 |language=English}}</ref> early [[Seismometer|seismological detectors]], [[match]]es, paper, [[Helicopter rotor]], [[Raised-relief map]], the double-action piston pump, [[cast iron]], water powered blast furnace [[bellows]], the iron [[plough]], the multi-tube [[seed drill]], the wheelbarrow, the parachute, the [[compass]], the [[rudder]], the [[crossbow]], the [[South Pointing Chariot]] and gunpowder. China also developed deep well drilling, which they used to extract brine for making salt. Some of these wells, which were as deep as 900 meters, produced natural gas which was used for evaporating brine.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention |last1=Temple |first1=Robert |first2=Joseph |last2=Needham |year= 1986|publisher = Simon and Schuster|location=New York }} Based on the works of Joseph Needham</ref>

Other Chinese discoveries and inventions from the medieval period include [[block printing]], [[movable type|movable type printing]], phosphorescent paint, endless power [[chain drive]] and the clock escapement mechanism. The solid-fuel [[rocket]] was invented in China about 1150, nearly 200 years after the invention of [[gunpowder]] (which acted as the rocket's fuel). Decades before the West's age of exploration, the Chinese emperors of the [[Ming Dynasty]] also sent [[Treasure voyages|large fleets]] on maritime voyages, some reaching Africa.

==== Hellenistic Mediterranean ====
The [[Hellenistic period]] of [[History of the Mediterranean region|Mediterranean history]] began in the 4th century BC with [[Alexander's conquests]], which led to the emergence of a [[Hellenistic civilization]] representing a synthesis of [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Near-East]]ern cultures in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] region, including the [[Balkans]], [[Levant]] and [[Egypt]].<ref name="Green">Green, Peter. ''Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.</ref> With [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] as its intellectual center and Greek as the lingua franca, the Hellenistic civilization included [[Greeks in Egypt|Greek]], [[Egyptians|Egyptian]], Jewish, [[Persian people|Persian]] and [[Phoenicia]]n scholars and engineers who wrote in Greek.<ref>George G. Joseph (2000). ''The Crest of the Peacock'', p. 7-8. [[Princeton University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-691-00659-8}}.</ref>

Hellenistic engineers of the Eastern Mediterranean were responsible for a number of [[Ancient Greek technology|inventions and improvements]] to existing technology. The [[Hellenistic period]] saw a sharp increase in technological advancement, fostered by a climate of openness to new ideas, the blossoming of a mechanistic philosophy, and the establishment of the [[Library of Alexandria]] in [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] and its close association with the adjacent [[museion]]. In contrast to the typically anonymous inventors of earlier ages, ingenious minds such as [[Archimedes]], [[Philo of Byzantium]], [[Hero of Alexandria|Heron]], [[Ctesibius]], and [[Archytas]] remain known by name to posterity.

Ancient agriculture, as in any period prior to the modern age the primary mode of production and subsistence, and its irrigation methods, were considerably advanced by the invention and widespread application of a number of previously unknown water-lifting devices, such as the vertical [[water-wheel]], the compartmented wheel, the water [[turbine]], [[Archimedes' screw]], the bucket-chain and pot-garland, the [[force pump]], the [[suction pump]], the double-action [[piston pump]] and quite possibly the [[chain pump]].<ref name="Lewis 2000 356f.">{{Cite book
 | last = Oleson
 | first = John Peter Oleson
 | author-link = John Peter Oleson
 | year = 2000
 | contribution = Water-Lifting
 | editor-last = Wikander
 | editor-first = Örjan
 | editor-link = Örjan Wikander
 | title = Handbook of Ancient Water Technology
 | series = Technology and Change in History
 | location = Leiden
 | volume = 2
 | pages = 217–302
 | isbn = 978-90-04-11123-3
}}</ref>

In music, the [[water organ]], invented by Ctesibius and subsequently improved, constituted the earliest instance of a keyboard instrument. In time-keeping, the introduction of the inflow [[Water clock|clepsydra]] and its mechanization by the dial and pointer, the application of a [[feedback|feedback system]] and the [[escapement]] mechanism far superseded the earlier outflow clepsydra.

Innovations in mechanical technology included the newly devised right-angled [[gear]], which would become particularly important to the operation of mechanical devices. Hellenistic engineers also devised [[automata]] such as suspended ink pots, automatic [[washstand]]s, and doors, primarily as toys, which however featured new useful mechanisms such as the [[Cam (mechanism)|cam]] and [[gimbal]]s.

The [[Antikythera mechanism]], a kind of [[analog computer|analogous computer]] working with a [[differential gear]], and the [[astrolabe]] both show great refinement in astronomical science.

In other fields, ancient Greek innovations include the [[catapult]] and the [[gastraphetes]] crossbow in warfare, hollow bronze-casting in metallurgy, the [[dioptra]] for surveying, in infrastructure the [[lighthouse]], [[central heating]], a [[Tunnel of Eupalinos|tunnel excavated from both ends by scientific calculations]], and the [[Diolkos|ship trackway]]. In transport, great progress resulted from the invention of the [[winch]] and the [[odometer]].

Further newly created techniques and items were [[List of ancient spiral stairs|spiral staircases]], the [[chain drive]], [[caliper|sliding calipers]] and showers.

==== Roman Empire ====
[[File:Pont du Gard BLS.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Pont du Gard]] in France, a Roman aqueduct]]

The [[Roman Empire]] expanded from [[Roman Italy|Italia]] across the entire [[Mediterranean region]] between the 1st century BC and 1st century AD. Its most advanced and economically productive provinces outside of Italia were the [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Roman]] provinces in the [[Balkans]], [[Asia Minor]], [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], and the [[Levant]], with [[Roman Egypt]] in particular being the wealthiest Roman province outside of Italia.<ref>[[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2007), ''Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History'', p. 55, table 1.14, [[Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0-19-922721-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Herons von Alexandria Druckwerke und Automatentheater |author-last=Hero |author-link=Hero of Alexandria |others=Wilhelm Schmidt (translator) |place=Leipzig |publisher=B.G. Teubner |date=1899 |language=el, de |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/heronsvonalexandhero#page/228/mode/2up |pages=228–232 |chapter=Pneumatika, Book ΙΙ, Chapter XI}}</ref>

The Roman Empire developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working technology, created [[Roman law|laws]] providing for individual ownership, advanced stone masonry technology, advanced [[Roman road|road-building]] (exceeded only in the 19th century), military engineering, civil engineering, spinning and weaving and several different machines like the [[reaper|Gallic reaper]] that helped to increase productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy. [[Ancient Roman engineering|Roman engineers]] were the first to build monumental arches, [[List of Roman amphitheatres|amphitheatres]], [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]], [[Thermae|public baths]], [[Roman bridge|true arch bridges]], [[harbour]]s, reservoirs and dams, vaults and domes on a very large scale across their Empire. Notable Roman inventions include the [[Codex|book (Codex)]], [[glass blowing]] and concrete. Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, the concrete which the Romans formulated was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day.

In Roman Egypt, the inventor [[Hero of Alexandria]] was the first to experiment with a [[wind-power]]ed mechanical device (see [[Hero of Alexandria|Heron]]'s windwheel) and even created the earliest [[steam-power]]ed device (the [[aeolipile]]), opening up new possibilities in harnessing natural forces. He also devised a [[vending machine]]. However, his inventions were primarily toys, rather than practical machines.

==== Inca, Maya, and Aztec ====
[[File:Walls at Sacsayhuaman.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Walls at Sacsayhuaman]]

The engineering skills of the [[Inca]] and [[Maya peoples|Maya]] were great, even by today's standards. An example of this exceptional engineering is the use of pieces weighing upwards of one ton in their stonework placed together so that not even a blade can fit into the cracks. Inca villages used irrigation canals and [[drainage]] systems, making agriculture very efficient. While some claim that the Incas were the first inventors of [[hydroponics]], their agricultural technology was still soil based, if advanced.

Though the [[Maya civilization]] did not incorporate metallurgy or wheel technology in their architectural constructions, they developed complex writing and astronomical systems, and created beautiful sculptural works in stone and flint. Like the Inca, the Maya also had command of fairly advanced agricultural and construction technology. The Maya are also responsible for creating the first pressurized water system in Mesoamerica, located in the Maya site of [[Palenque]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/5959-ancient-mayans-fountains-toilets.html|title=Ancient Mayans Likely Had Fountains and Toilets|date=December 23, 2009|work=Live Science}}</ref>

The main contribution of the [[Aztec]] rule was a system of communications between the conquered cities and the ubiquity of the ingenious agricultural technology of [[chinampas]]. In [[Mesoamerica]], without draft animals for transport (nor, as a result, wheeled vehicles), the roads were designed for travel on foot, just as in the Inca and Mayan civilizations. The Aztec, subsequently to the Maya, inherited many of the technologies and intellectual advancements of their predecessors: the [[Olmec]] (see [[Native American inventions and innovations]]).