Editing Ho language (section)

==Grammar==
Like other languages of the Munda family, Ho has a mostly suffixing agglutinative inflectional morphology and follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment. There is some debate on whether Munda languages have word classes, an item from any word class can function as a verb in Ho. Ho does not have relative pronouns natively and relies on the participle forms of verbs, the forms that includes aspect, object and transitivity, but no mood markers, to form relative clauses.

===Nouns and noun phrases===
Number, possession and case suffixes are added to nouns.  Alienable and inalienable possessions are distinguished.

====Number and possession====
Ho distinguishes singular, dual and plural numbers. Number suffixes are generally written separate from base nouns.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
|
!Possessive
|-
! Singular
| {{lang|hoc|Kula}} "tiger"
| {{lang|hoc|Kula'''aḱ'''}} "tiger's"
|-
! Dual
| {{lang|hoc|Kula '''kin'''}} "two tigers"
| {{lang|hoc|Kula kin'''aḱ'''}} "of the two tigers"
|-
! Plural
| {{lang|hoc|Kula '''ko'''}} "tigers"
| {{lang|hoc|Kula ko'''aḱ'''}} "of the tigers"
|}

====Number and inalienable possession====
Construction for alienable possessions is different form inalienable possessions, {{lang|hoc|En Eraaḱ Kolom}} "That woman's thresing floor", and {{lang|hoc|En Era Gauńte}} "That woman's aunt". Suffixes for inalienable possessions only occur in the singular.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
|
!1st person possessor
!2nd person possessor
!3rd person possessor
|-
! Singular
| {{lang|hoc|Gauń}} "aunt"
| {{lang|hoc|Gauń'''iń'''}} "my aunt"
| {{lang|hoc|Gauń'''me'''}} "your aunt"
| | {{lang|hoc|Gauń'''te'''}} "his/her aunt"
|-
! Dual
| {{lang|hoc|Gauń kin}} "two aunts"
| {{lang|hoc|Gauń'''iń''' '''tekin'''}} "my two aunts"
| {{lang|hoc|Gauń'''me''' '''tekin'''}} "your two aunts"
| | {{lang|hoc|Gauń'''te''' '''tekin'''}} "his/her two aunts"
|-
! Plural
| {{lang|hoc|Gauń kin}} "two aunts"
| {{lang|hoc|Gauń'''iń''' '''teko'''}} "my aunts"
| {{lang|hoc|Gauń'''me''' '''teko'''}} "your aunts"
| | {{lang|hoc|Gauń'''te''' '''teko'''}} "his/her aunts"
|}

===Pronouns===
Ho personal pronoun distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person and anaphoric and demonstrative third person.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Personal pronouns
| colspan="4" rowspan="1" |
|'''Singular'''
|'''Dual'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |'''1st person'''
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" |'''Exclusive'''
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |''ań''
|''aliń''
|''ale''
|-
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" |'''Inclusive'''
|''alaṅ''
|''abu''
|-
| colspan="4" rowspan="1" |'''2nd person'''
|''am''
|''aben''
|''ape''
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="5" |'''3rd person'''
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" |'''Anaphoric'''
|''ać''
|''akin''
|''ako''
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="4" |'''Demonstrative'''
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |'''Proximal'''
|''neić''
|''nekin''
|''neko''
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |'''Distal'''
|'''Visible'''
|''enić''
|''enkin''
|''enko''
|-
|'''Audible'''
|''etić''
|''etekin''
|''eteko''
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |'''Remote'''
|''hanić''
|''hankin''
|''hanko''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Interrogative pronouns
|-
!
! Animate
! Inanimate
|-
! Referential
| {{lang|hoc|okoe}}
| {{lang|hoc|okon}}
|-
! Non-referential
| {{lang|hoc|chenić}}
| {{lang|hoc|chenaḱ}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Indefinite pronouns
|-
! &nbsp;
! Animate
! Inanimate
|-
| 'any'
| {{lang|hoc|jahć}}
| {{lang|hoc|jahnaḱ}}
|-
| 'another'
| {{lang|hoc|eṭaḱć}}
| {{lang|hoc|eṭaḱaḱ}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Demonstratives
|-
!
! Simple
! Particular
|-
! Proximate
| {{lang|hoc|ne, nen}}
| {{lang|hoc|nea, nena}}
|-
! Distal
| {{lang|hoc|en}}
| {{lang|hoc|ena}}
|-
! Remote
| {{lang|hoc|han}}
| {{lang|hoc|hana}}
|}

===Numerals===
Short forms are used in compound words, general counting and counting money, the long forms are used when counting specific objects.
{| class="wikitable" style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#F8F9FA; color:#202122;"
|-
| rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Cardinal
! colspan="2" | Distributive
|-
! Short form
! Long form
! Short form
! Long form
|-
! 1
| {{lang|hoc|mí}}
| {{lang|hoc|miat́}}
| {{lang|hoc|mimit́}}
| {{lang|hoc|mí-miat́}}
|-
! 2
| {{lang|hoc|bar}}
| {{lang|hoc|baria}}
| {{lang|hoc|bá-bar}}
| {{lang|hoc|bá-baria}}
|-
! 3
| {{lang|hoc|apé}}
| {{lang|hoc|apeia}}
| {{lang|hoc|á-pé}}
| {{lang|hoc|á-peia}}
|-
! 4
| {{lang|hoc|upun}}
| {{lang|hoc|upunia}}
| {{lang|hoc|ú-pun}}
| {{lang|hoc|ú-punia}}
|-
! 5
| {{lang|hoc|moe}}
| {{lang|hoc|moeia}}
| {{lang|hoc|mó-moe}}
| {{lang|hoc|mó-móeia}}
|-
! 6
| {{lang|hoc|turui}}
| {{lang|hoc|turuiia}}
| {{lang|hoc|tú-turui}}
| {{lang|hoc|tú-turuiia}}
|-
! 7
| {{lang|hoc|ai}}
| {{lang|hoc|aiia}}
| {{lang|hoc|á-ai}}
| {{lang|hoc|á-aiia}}
|-
! 8
| {{lang|hoc|iril}}
| {{lang|hoc|irilia}}
| {{lang|hoc|í-iril}}
| {{lang|hoc|í-irilia}}
|-
! 9
| {{lang|hoc|are}}
| {{lang|hoc|areia}}
| {{lang|hoc|á-are}}
| {{lang|hoc|á-areia}}
|-
! 10
| {{lang|hoc|gel}}
| {{lang|hoc|gelia}}
| {{lang|hoc|gé-gel}}
| {{lang|hoc|gé-gelia}}
|-
! 20
| {{lang|hoc|hisi}}
| {{lang|hoc|hisiia}}
| {{lang|hoc|hí-hisi}}
| {{lang|hoc|hí-hisiia}}
|}

===Postpositions===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Postposition
! Function
|-
| {{lang|hoc|lagit́}}
| Dative
|-
| {{lang|hoc|loḱ}}
| Comitative, along with
|-
| {{lang|hoc|paa}}
| Towards, around
|-
| {{lang|hoc|re}}
| Spatio-temporal location, locative
|-
| {{lang|hoc|paṅ}}
| Temporal, indicates time
|-
| {{lang|hoc|japaḱ}}
| Near
|-
| {{lang|hoc|te}}
| Instrumental, instrument, cause, motion, direction, allative
|-
| {{lang|hoc|leka}}
| Semblative
|-
| {{lang|hoc|taḱ}}
| Adessive
|-
| {{lang|hoc|aete}}
| Ablative, source, origin
|-
| {{lang|hoc|chetan}}
| On top of
|-
| {{lang|hoc|latar}}
| Below
|-
| {{lang|hoc|suba}}
| Under
|-
| {{lang|hoc|jóṅ}}, {{lang|hoc|joka}}
|Terminative
|-
| {{lang|hoc|mutit́}}/''partet́''
| Distributive
|}

===Particles===
{| class="wikitable"
! Particle
! Function / Meaning
!Examples
|-
| {{lang|hoc|do}}
| Topic marker
|''En Kaji '''do''' nahḱ at́ eana,'' 'That word is now forgotten'
|-
|''ó''
|'''Even/also''<nowiki/>'
|''En Kaji '''ó''' nahḱ do at́ eana'', 'Even that word is forgotten now'
|-
| {{lang|hoc|ge}}
| Emphasis marker
|''En Kaji '''ge''' at́ eana'', 'That very word is forgotten'
|-
| {{lang|hoc|chi}}
| Question particle
|''En Kaji at́ eana '''chi'''?'', 'Has that word been forgotten?'
|-
| {{lang|hoc|ma}}
| ''<nowiki/>'As for that'''
|''En Kaji '''ma''' at́ eana nahḱ do'', 'As for that word, it is lost now'
|-
| {{lang|hoc|rená}}, {{lang|hoc|rengá}}
| Intensifier
|''En Kaji at́ '''rená/rengá''' eana'', 'That word is absolutely forgotten'
|-
| {{lang|hoc|toraṅ}}
| Speculative
|''En Kaji do at́ eana '''toraṅ''''', 'That word is forgotten I suppose'
|-
| {{lang|hoc|chiat́}}/''chit́laṅ/chimat́''
| ''<nowiki/>'As far as I know'''
|''En Kaji do at́ eana '''chimat́''''', 'That word is forgotten (as far as I know)'
|-
|''deraṅ''
|Hearsay
|''En Chatom do at́ eana '''deraṅ''''', 'That umbrella was lost (they say)'
|-
| {{lang|hoc|batit́}}/''batit́laṅ/batikam/batil''
| Realization/correction particle
|''En Urić doć at́ eana '''batit́''''', 'That cow has gone missing (I just realized)'; ''Nen Urić batit́ at́ lena'', 'It was this cow that was lost (not the other one, I was mistaken)'
|-
|''honaṅ''
|Irrealis marker
|''En Kaji do at́ eana '''honaṅ''''', 'That word would have been forgotten'
|-
|''auri''
|''<nowiki/>'Not yet'''
|''En Kaji do '''auri''' at́oḱa'', 'That word is yet to be forgotten'
|-
|''gatát́/gatalt́''
|''<nowiki/>'All without exception'''
|''Upun hoo '''gatát́/gatalt́'''kô at́ eana'', 'All the four persons were lost'
|-
|''jaket́/sante''
|''<nowiki/>'As far as even'''
|''En Kaji '''jaket́/sante''' at́oḱ ge'', 'To the extent that even that word may be forgotten'
|-
|''mar''
|Prompt hearer to do something
|''En Merom '''mar''' kumbuu eana'', 'That goat has been stolen (how disappointing, what would you even say to that?)'
|-
|''halte''
|''<nowiki/>'So it was...'''
|''Nen Seta '''halte''' at́ lena,'' 'So it was this dog that was lost'
|-
|''idu''
|Dubitative
|''Nael kale kumbuu kenakô menèa, '''idu''','' 'They say we did not steal the plough (but who knows?)'
|-
|''sumat́/sungat́/suat́/sual''
|''<nowiki/>'Only'''
|''Nen Oaḱ '''sumat́''' sareć eana'', 'Only this house was spared'
|-
|''chite''
|Disbelief
|''En chokoć lekan Oaḱ '''chite'''kô kiriṅ ket́a?'', 'Did they really buy this small house?'
|-
|''oṛoḱ''
|''<nowiki/>'What else do you expect?'''
|''Parkom do Gama rem bage let́a, soya eana '''oṛoḱ''''', You had left the cot in the rain, it started rotting, what else do you expect?
|-
|''rongam/rongate''
|''<nowiki/>'I tell you / of course'''
|''Kolom ren Guḍu '''rongam''' Bilae imineć maraṅa,'' 'The bandicoot rat from the threshing floor is big as a cat I tell you'
|}

===Verbs===
There is no restrictions as to which word may occupy the role of a verb. Therefore, even proper nouns may act as verbs, ''Lako ket́ińako,'' 'They named me Lako'. Verbs may be serialized or modified with affixes before being put in this verb template:

'''Verb stem + (Aspect marker) + (Transitive/Intransitive marker) + (Object pronoun) + (Mood marker) + (Subject pronoun)'''

The verb stem may be modified in the following ways:
{| class="wikitable"
|
|'''Root modification'''
|'''Example with ''kaji'', 'to tell''''
|-
|'''Reciprocal'''
|''-p-''
|''ka'''p'''aji'', 'to tell each other / argue'
|-
|'''Benefactive'''
|''-a''
|''kaji'''a''''', 'to tell someone'
|-
|'''Habitual'''
|''lengthening or reduplication of the first syllable''
|'''''kaá'''ji'', 'to tell habitually'
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Ho aspect markers
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |
|'''Transitive'''
|'''Intransitive'''
|'''Examples with ''nutum,'' 'to name''''
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="4" |'''Past'''
|'''Pluperfect'''
|''let́''
|''len''
|''nutum '''let́'''ań,'' 'I had previously named'; ''nutum '''len'''ań,'' 'I was previously named'
|-
|'''Aorist'''
|''ket́''
|''ken*''
|''nutum '''ket́'''ań'', 'I named'; ''nutum '''ken'''ań'', 'I used to name'
|-
|'''Ingressive'''
|''**''
|''yan***''
|''nutum '''yan'''ań'', 'I had begun to be named / I was named'
|-
|'''Perfect'''
|''akat́''
|''akan''
|''nutum '''akat́'''ań'', 'I have named'; ''nutum '''akan'''ań'', 'I have been named (I'm famous)'
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="6" |'''Non-past'''
|'''Progressive/Continuous/Punctual'''
|''tat́''
|''tan****''
|''nutum '''tat́'''ań'', 'I have (just) named'; ''nutumè '''tan'''ań,'' 'I am naming it'
|-
|'''Present/Future'''
|''-Ø''
|''-oḱ''
|''nuútumań,'' 'I name (habitually)'; ''nutum'''oḱ'''ań,'' 'I will be named'
|-
|
|''lee''
|''leenoḱ''
|''nutum '''lee'''ań'', 'I will first name it'; ''nutum '''leenoḱ'''ań'' 'I will first be famous'
|-
|
|''kee''
|''keenoḱ''
|''nutum '''kee'''ań'', 'I will name it (before doing something else)'
|-
|
|''akaa''
|''akaanoḱ''
|''nutum '''akaa'''àń'', 'I will keep naming'; ''nutum '''akaanoḱ'''ań'', 'I will continue to be named'
|-
|
|''taa''
| -
|''nutum '''taa'''àń'', 'I will name it now'
|}

* presence of a transitivity marker indicates past tense and the absence non-past.
* ''ken'' is only used in its original function as an intransitive with a small number of verbs, like ''oṛa '''to bathe' and ''sen'' 'to go', it has now been extended even to transitive verbs, where it shifts the focus from the object of the verb to the subject.
* intransitive counterpart of the ingressive ''yan'' is lost in Ho, while being maintained in Mundari as ''yada/jada'' and in Santali as ''eda. ean'' maintains ingressive meaning only with a limited number of verbs, it mostly functions as the intransitive counterpart of aorist ''ket́.''
* ''tan'' is conjugated differently than other aspect markers, where the object marker occurs right before ''tan'', rather than after the transitivity marker, enabling it to be used even on transitive verbs, where it has taken over the function of ''tat́'' with many verbs, as in ''gama tat́ać'' vs. ''gamaè tanać,'' both having the same meaning with the latter being more common''.'' With a number of transitive verbs, ''tan'' and ''tat́'' contrast and produce progressive-continuous distinction, ''tusiṅ tat́ać'', 'he is wearing' (continuous aspect), ''tusiṅè tanać'', 'he (now) is (in the process of) wearing it' (progressive aspect).
* benefactive stem with ''-a'' cannot take any of the aspect markers, it can only take a transitivity marker, limiting its occurrence either with the past or the non-past tense.