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Howler monkey
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===Social systems=== Most howler species live in groups of six to 15 animals, with one to three adult males and multiple females. Mantled howler monkeys are an exception, commonly living in groups of 15 to 20 individuals with more than three adult males. The number of males in a given group is inversely correlated with the size of their hyoids and is positively correlated with testes size. [[File:2006-08-08 Brüllaffe mit Jungtier, Monteverde (Costa Rica).jpg|thumb|200px|right|A Red Howler with child in [[Monteverde]] Cloud Forest Biological Reserve]] This results in two distinct groups, wherein one male with a larger hyoid and smaller testes copulates exclusively with a group of females, suggesting precopulatory vocal competition. The other group has more males, which have smaller hyoids, and larger testes. The larger the number of males, the smaller the hyoid, and the larger the testes.<ref name=":1" /> Female howler monkeys breed with multiple males within their group, with males in neighboring groups, and with solitary males. Central males tie up fellowship with cycling females.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kowalewski |first1=Martín M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RnK1BQAAQBAJ&dq=Howler+monkeys%3A+behavior%2C+ecology%2C+and+conservation.+Springer.&pg=PR5 |title=Howler monkeys: behavior, ecology, and conservation |last2=Garber |first2=Paul A |last3=Cortés-Ortiz |first3=Liliana |last4=Urbani |first4=Bernardo |last5=Youlato |first5=Dionisios |publisher=Springer |year=2014 |pages=10–11|isbn=9781493919604 }}</ref> Unlike most New World monkeys, in which one sex remains in natal groups, juveniles of both sexes emigrate from their natal groups,<ref name=Sussman>{{cite book | author = Sussman, R. | title = Primate Ecology and Social Structure, Vol. 2: New World Monkeys, Revised First Edition | pages = 142–145| publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall |date=July 2003 | isbn = 978-0-536-74364-0}}</ref> such that howler monkeys could spend the majority of their adult lives in association with unrelated monkeys. Physical fighting among group members is infrequent and generally of short duration, but serious injuries can result. Both males and females rarely fight with each other, but physical aggression is even more rare between sexes.<ref name=Sussman/><ref>{{cite book |author = Crockett | chapter = Family Feuds | title = Primate Anthology, The: Essays on Primate Behavior, Ecology and Conservation from Natural History | pages = 32 |editor1=Ciochon, R. L. |editor2=Nisbett, R. A. | publisher = Prentice Hall | isbn = 978-0-13-613845-7 | date = 1997-10-02}}</ref> Group size varies by species and by location, with an approximate ratio of one male to four females.<ref name=Sussman/>
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