Editing Impala (section)

===Parasites===
[[File:Red-billed oxpecker (Buphagus erythrorhynchus) on impala (Aepyceros melampus).jpg|thumb|Impala have a symbiotic relationship with [[oxpecker]]s]]

Common [[Ixodidae|ixodid]] ticks collected from impala include ''[[Amblyomma hebraeum]]'', ''[[Boophilus decoloratus]]'', ''[[Hyalomma marginatum]]'', ''[[Ixodes cavipalpus]]'', ''[[Rhipicephalus appendiculatus]]'' and ''[[Rhipicephalus evertsi|R. evertsi]]''.<ref name=Mooring1995>{{cite journal |last1 = Mooring |first1 = M.S. |title = The effect of tick challenge on grooming rate by impala |journal = Animal Behaviour |date = 1995 |volume = 50 |issue = 2 |pages = 377–92 |doi = 10.1006/anbe.1995.0253 |s2cid = 53185353 |url = http://www.pointloma.edu/sites/default/files/filemanager/Biology/Faculty/Mooring/Publications/1995-Tick_challenge_impala_grooming_Anim_Behav.pdf |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161012005200/http://www.pointloma.edu/sites/default/files/filemanager/Biology/Faculty/Mooring/Publications/1995-Tick_challenge_impala_grooming_Anim_Behav.pdf |archive-date = 12 October 2016 |df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Gallivan |first1 = G.J. |last2 = Culverwell |first2 = J. |last3 = Girdwood |first3 = R. |last4 = Surgeoner |first4 = G.A. |title = Ixodid ticks of impala (''Aepyceros melampus'') in Swaziland: effect of age class, sex, body condition and management |journal = South African Journal of Zoology |date = 1995 |volume = 30 |issue = 4 |pages = 178–86 |doi = 10.1080/02541858.1995.11448385 |doi-access = free }} {{open access}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Horak |first1 = I.G. |title = Parasites of domestic and wild animals in South Africa. XV. The seasonal prevalence of ectoparasites on impala and cattle in the Northern Transvaal |journal = The Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research |date = 1982 |volume = 49 |issue = 2 |pages = 85–93 |pmid = 7177586 }}</ref> In [[Wildlife of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]], heavy infestation by ticks such as ''R. appendiculatus'' has proved to be a major cause behind the high mortality of ungulates, as they can lead to [[tick paralysis]]. Impala have special adaptations for grooming, such as their characteristic dental arrangement, to manage ticks before they engorge; however, the extensive grooming needed to keep the tick load under control involves the risk of dehydration during summer, lower vigilance against predators and gradual wearing out of the teeth. A study showed that impala adjust the time devoted to grooming and the number of grooming bouts according to the seasonal prevalence of ticks.<ref name=Mooring1995 />

Impala are symbiotically related to [[oxpecker]]s,<ref>Mikula P, Hadrava J, Albrecht T, Tryjanowski P. (2018) Large-scale assessment of commensalistic–mutualistic associations between African birds and herbivorous mammals using internet photos. PeerJ 6:e4520 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4520</ref> which feed on ticks from those parts of the antelope's body which the animal cannot access by itself (such as the ears, neck, eyelids, forehead and underbelly). The impala is the smallest ungulate with which oxpeckers are associated. In a study it was observed that oxpeckers selectively attended to impala despite the presence of other animals such as [[Coke's hartebeest]], Grant's gazelle, [[Thomson's gazelle]] and [[topi]]. A possible explanation for this could be that because the impala inhabits woodlands (which can have a high density of ticks), the impala could have greater mass of ticks per unit area of the body surface.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Hart |first1 = B.L. |last2 = Hart |first2 = L.A. |last3 = Mooring |first3 = M.S. |title = Differential foraging of oxpeckers on impala in comparison with sympatric antelope species |journal = African Journal of Ecology |date = 1990 |volume = 28 |issue = 3 |pages = 240–9 |doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2028.1990.tb01157.x |bibcode = 1990AfJEc..28..240H |url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229520029 }} {{open access}}</ref> Another study showed that the oxpeckers prefer the ears over other parts of the body, probably because these parts show maximum tick infestation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Mooring |first1 = M.S. |last2 = Mundy |first2 = P.J. |title = Interactions between impala and oxpeckers at Matobo National Park, Zimbabwe |journal = African Journal of Ecology |date = 1996 |volume = 34 |issue = 1 |pages = 54–65 |doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2028.1996.tb00594.x |bibcode = 1996AfJEc..34...54M |url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227814876 }} {{open access}}</ref> The bird has also been observed to perch on the [[udders]] of a female and pilfer its [[milk]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hussain Kanchwala |title=How Did We Start Drinking Milk Of The Ruminants? Are We The Only Species To Drink Milk Of Other Species? |journal=ScienceABC |date=2022 |url=https://www.scienceabc.com/humans/species-drink-milk-another-species.html}}</ref>

[[Louse|Lice]] recorded from impala include ''[[Damalinia aepycerus]]'', ''[[Damalinia elongata|D. elongata]]'', ''[[Linognathus aepycerus]]'' and ''[[Linognathus nevilli|L. nevilli]]''; in a study, [[ivermectin]] (a medication against parasites) was found to have an effect on ''Boophilus decoloratus'' and ''Linognathus'' species, though not on ''Damalinia'' species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Horak |first1 = I.G. |last2 = Boomker |first2 = J. |last3 = Kingsley |first3 = S.A. |last4 = De Vos |first4 = V. |title = The efficacy of ivermectin against helminth and arthropod parasites of impala |journal = Journal of the South African Veterinary Association |date = 1983 |volume = 54 |issue = 4 |pages = 251–3 |pmid = 6689430 }}</ref> In a study of impala in South Africa, the number of [[worm]]s in juveniles showed an increase with age, reaching a peak when impala turned a year old. This study recorded worms of genera such as ''[[Cooperia (nematode)|Cooperia]]'', ''[[Cooperoides]]'', ''[[Fasciola]]'', ''[[Gongylonema]]''. ''[[Haemonchus]]'', ''[[Impalaia]]'', ''[[Longistrongylus]]'' and ''[[Trichostrongylus]]''; some of these showed seasonal variations in density.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Horak |first1 = I.G. |title = Parasites of domestic and wild animals in South Africa. X. Helminths in impala |journal = The Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research |date = 1978 |volume = 45 |issue = 4 |pages = 221–8 |pmid = 572950 }}</ref>

Impala show high frequency of [[defensive behaviour]]s towards flying insects.<ref name="Auty-et-al-2016">{{cite journal | last1=Auty | first1=Harriet | last2=Morrison | first2=Liam J. | last3=Torr | first3=Stephen J. | last4=Lord | first4=Jennifer | title=Transmission Dynamics of Rhodesian Sleeping Sickness at the Interface of Wildlife and Livestock Areas | journal=[[Trends in Parasitology]] | publisher=[[Cell Press]] | volume=32 | issue=8 | year=2016 | issn=1471-4922 | doi=10.1016/j.pt.2016.05.003 | pages=608–621| pmid=27262917 | url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/215396/1/215396.pdf }}</ref> This is probably the reason for Vale 1977 and Clausen et al 1998 only finding [[trace levels]] of feeding by ''Glossina'' ([[tsetse fly]]) upon impala.<ref name="Auty-et-al-2016" />

''[[Theileria]]'' of impala in [[Kenya]] are not [[cross infection|cross infectious]] to [[cattle]]: Grootenhuis et al 1975 were not able to induce cattle infection and Fawcett et al 1987 did not find it naturally occurring.<ref name="Grootenhuis-Olubayo-1993">{{cite journal | last1=Grootenhuis | first1=J.G. | last2=Olubayo | first2=R.O. | title=Disease research in the wildlife-livestock interface in Kenya | journal=[[Veterinary Quarterly]] | publisher=[[Royal Netherlands Veterinary Association]]+[[Flemish Veterinary Association]] ([[Taylor & Francis|T&F]]) | volume=15 | issue=2 | year=1993 | issn=0165-2176 | doi=10.1080/01652176.1993.9694372 | pages=55–59| pmid=8372423 | doi-access=free }}</ref>