Editing Japanese macaque (section)

=== Mating and parenting ===
[[File:Macaca fuscata male and female , Iwatayama, 20081019.jpg|thumb|Macaques mating]]
A male and female macaque form a [[pair bond]] and mate, feed, rest, and travel together during the mating season, and on average, this relationship typically lasts 16 days.<ref name=Huffman1992>{{cite journal |last1=Huffman |first1=Michael A. |title=Influences of female partner preference on potential reproductive outcome in Japanese macaques |journal=Folia Primatologica |date=1992 |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=77–88 |doi=10.1159/000156645 |pmid=1297630}}</ref> Females enter into consortships with an average of four males a season.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gouzoules |first1=Harold |last2=Goy |first2=Robert W. |title=Physiological and social influences on mounting behavior of troop-living female monkeys (''Macaca fuscata'') |journal=American Journal of Primatology |date=1983 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=39–49 |doi=10.1002/ajp.1350050105 |pmid=31992009|s2cid=85909507 }}</ref> Higher-ranking males have longer consortships than their subordinates.<ref name=Huffman1992/> In addition, higher-ranking males try to disrupt consortships of lower-ranking males.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perloe |first1=Sidney I. |title=Male mating competition, female choice and dominance in a free-ranging group of Japanese macaques |journal=Primates |date=1992 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=289–304 |doi=10.1007/BF02381191|s2cid=20575934 }}</ref> Females may choose to mate with males of any rank. However, dominant males mate more frequently than others, as they are more successful in mate guarding.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soltis |first1=Joseph |title=Measuring male-female relationships during the mating season in wild Japanese macaques (''Macaca fuscata yakui'') |journal=Primates |date=1999 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=453–467 |doi=10.1007/BF02557581|s2cid=45835173 }}</ref> The female decides whether mating takes place. In addition, a dominant position does not mean a male will successfully mate with a female.<ref name=Fooden2005/> Males may join other troops temporarily during the mating season and mate with those females.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sprague |first1=D. S. |title=Mating by non-troop males among the Japanese macaques of Yakushima island |journal=Folia Primatologica |date=1991 |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=156–158 |doi=10.1159/000156577}}</ref>

During the mating season, the face and genitalia of males redden and their tails stand erect,<ref name=Wolfe1979>Wolfe L. (1979) "Sexual maturation among members of a transported troop of Japanese macaques". ''Primates'' 20(3):411–8.</ref> and the faces and anogenital regions of females turn scarlet.<ref name=Wolfe1979/> Macaques copulate both on the ground and in the trees.<ref name= Yotsumoto1976/> Roughly one in three copulations leads to [[ejaculation]].<ref name="MobileReference2009">{{cite book|author=MobileReference|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of North American Mammals: A Comprehensive Guide to Mammals of North America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxK4KWrGn2cC&q=copulate+macaque|access-date=23 April 2013|date=15 December 2009|publisher=MobileReference|isbn=978-1-60501-279-7}}</ref> Macaques signal when they are ready to mate by looking backward over a shoulder, staying still, or walking backward toward their potential partner.<ref>Hanby JP, Brown CE. (1974) "The development of sociosexual behaviours in Japanese macaques ''Macaca fuscata''". ''Behaviour'' 49:152–96.</ref> A female emits a "squawk", a "squeak", or produces an atonal "cackle" during copulation. Males have no copulatory vocalizations.

Females engage in [[Homosexual behavior in animals|same-sex mounting]] unrelated to the mating season and therefore, are mounted more often by other females than by males.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vasey |first1=Paul L. |last2=Foroud |first2=Afra |last3=Duckworth |first3=Nadine |last4=Kovacovsky |first4=Stefani D. |title=Male–Female and Female–Female Mounting in Japanese Macaques: A Comparative Study of Posture and Movement |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |date=2006 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=116–128 |doi=10.1007/s10508-005-9007-1 |pmid=16752116|s2cid=22047878 }}</ref> This behavior has led to proposals in literature that female Japanese macaques are generally bisexual, rather than preferentially homo- or heterosexual.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vasey|first=P. L.|year=2002|title=Sexual partner preference in female Japanese macaques|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=31|issue=1|pages=51–62|doi=10.1023/A:1014079117864|pmid=11910792|s2cid=12551684}}</ref>
  
[[File:Snow Monkeys.jpg|thumb|left|Mother macaque with infant]]
[[File:Macaca fuscata juvenile yawning.jpg|thumb|Macaque juvenile yawning]]
A macaque mother moves to the periphery of her troop to give birth in a secluded spot,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fedigan |first1=L.M. |last2=Zohar |first2=S. |title=Sex differences in mortality of Japanese macaques: twenty-one years of data from the Arashiyama West population |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=1997 |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=161–175 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199702)102:2<161::AID-AJPA2>3.0.CO;2-1 |pmid=9066898}}</ref> unless the group is moving, when the female must stay with it.<ref>Thomsen R. (1997) "Observation of periparturitional behaviour in wild Yakushima macaques ('' Macaca fuscata yakui'') ". ''Folia Primatol''  68(6):338–41.</ref> Macaques usually give birth on the ground.<ref name=Fooden2005/> Infants are born with dark-brown hair.<ref name=Hiraiwa1981>Hiraiwa M (1981) "Maternal and alloparental care in a troop of free-ranging Japanese monkeys". ''Primates'' 22(3):309-29.</ref> A mother and her infant tend to avoid other troop members. The infants consume their first solid food at five to six weeks old, and by seven weeks, can forage independently from their mothers.<ref name=Hiraiwa1981/> A mother carries her infant on her belly for its first four weeks. After this time, the mother carries her infant on her back, as well. Infants continue to be carried past a year.<ref name=Hiraiwa1981/> The mother may socialize again very slowly.<ref>Bardi M, Shimizu K, Fujita S, Borgognini-Tarli S, Huffman MA. (2001) "Social behavior and hormonal correlates during the perinatal period in Japanese macaques". ''Horm Behav'' 39(3):239–46.</ref> However, [[alloparenting]] has been observed, usually by females who have not had infants of their own.<ref name=Hiraiwa1981/> Male care of infants occurs in some groups, but not in others; when they do, usually, older males protect, groom, and carry an infant as a female would.<ref>Gouzoules H. (1984) "Social relations of males and infants in a troop of Japanese monkeys: a consideration of causal mechanisms". In: Taub DM, editor. ''Primate paternalism''. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. pp. 127–45.</ref>

Infants have fully developed their locomotive abilities within three to four months.<ref>Minami T. (1974) "Early mother-infant relations in Japanese monkeys". In: Kondo S, Kawai M, Ehara A, editors. ''Contemporary primatology, proceedings of the 5th International Congress of Primatology''. Basel(CH): S. Karger. pp. 334–340.</ref> When an infant is seven months old, its mother discourages suckling; full weaning happens by its eighteenth month.

In some populations, male infants tend to play in larger groups more often than females.<ref name=Glick1986>Glick BB, Eaton GG, Johnson DF, Worlein J. (1986) "Social behavior of infant and mother Japanese macaques (''Macaca fuscata''): effects of kinship, partner sex, and infant sex". ''Int J Primatol'' 7(2):139–55.</ref> However, female infants have more social interaction than their male counterparts,<ref name=Glick1986/> and female infants will associate with individuals of all ages and sexes. When males are two years old, they prefer to associate with other males around the same age.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nakamichi |first1=Masayuki |title=Sex differences in social development during the first 4 years in a free-ranging group of Japanese monkeys, ''Macaca fuscata'' |journal=Animal Behaviour |date=1989 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=737–748 |doi=10.1016/S0003-3472(89)80106-X|s2cid=53204541 }}</ref>