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Khmer script
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== Dependent vowels == Most Khmer vowel sounds are written using dependent, or [[diacritic]]al, vowel symbols, known in Khmer as {{lang|km|ស្រៈនិស្ស័យ}} {{transliteration|km|srăk nĭssăy}} or {{lang|km|ស្រៈផ្សំ}} {{transliteration|km|srăk phsâm}} ("connecting vowel"). These can only be written in combination with a consonant (or consonant cluster). The vowel is pronounced after the consonant (or cluster), even though some of the symbols have graphical elements which appear above, below or to the left of the consonant character. Most of the vowel symbols have two possible pronunciations, depending on the inherent vowel of the consonant to which it is added. Their pronunciations may also be different in [[Khmer language#Stress|weak syllables]], and when they are shortened (e.g. by means of a diacritic). [[#Consonants with no dependent vowel|Absence of a dependent vowel]] (or diacritic) often implies that a syllable-initial consonant is followed by the sound of its inherent vowel. In determining the inherent vowel of a consonant cluster (i.e. how a following dependent vowel will be pronounced), [[Stop consonant|stops]] and [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]] are dominant over [[sonorant]]s. For any consonant cluster including a combination of these sounds, a following dependent vowel is pronounced according to the dominant consonant, regardless of its position in the cluster. When both members of a cluster are dominant, the subscript consonant determines the pronunciation of a following dependent vowel. A non-dominant consonant (and in some words also {{lang|km|ហ}} ''hâ'') will also have its inherent vowel changed by a preceding dominant consonant in the same word, even when there is a vowel between them, although some words (especially among those with more than two syllables) do not obey this rule. The dependent vowels are listed below, in conventional form with a dotted circle as a dummy consonant symbol, and in combination with the a-series letter {{lang|km|អ}} ''’â''. The IPA values given are representative of dialects from the northwest and central plains regions, specifically from the [[Battambang Province|Battambang]] area, upon which [[Standard language|Standard]] Khmer is based. Vowel pronunciation varies widely in other dialects such as [[Northern Khmer language|Northern Khmer]], where diphthongs are leveled, and [[Western Khmer dialect|Western Khmer]], in which [[breathy voice]] and [[modal voice]] [[phonation]]s are still contrastive. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! rowspan="2" | Dependent<br>vowel ! rowspan="2" | Example ! colspan="2" | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<ref name="Huffman"/> ! colspan="2" | [[Romanization of Khmer#Geographic Department|GD]] ! colspan="2" | [[Romanization of Khmer#UNGEGN|UNGEGN]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Romanization of Khmer#ALA-LC Romanization Tables|ALA-LC]] ! rowspan="2" | Notes |- ! a-series ! o-series ! a-series ! o-series ! a-series ! o-series |- | (none) | <big>{{lang|km|អ}}</big> | {{IPA|[ɑː]}},<br />{{IPA|[ɒː]}} in some dialects | {{IPA|[ɔː]}} |''a'' |''o'' | ''{{transliteration|km|â}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ô}}'' | ''a'' | style="text-align:left;" | See [[#Modification by diacritics|Modification by diacritics]] and [[#Consonants with no dependent vowel|Consonants with no dependent vowel]]. |- | <big>{{lang|km|ា}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អា}}</big> | {{IPA|[aː]}} | {{IPA|[iːə]}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoca0000jaco|url-access=registration|title=Introduction to Cambodian|last=Jacob|first=Judith M.|date=1968|publisher=London; Bombay [etc.] : [[Oxford University Press]]|others=Internet Archive|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoca0000jaco/page/19 19], 29–30}}</ref> |''a'' |''ea'' | ''{{transliteration|km|a}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|éa}}'' | ''ā'' | style="text-align:left;" | See [[#Modification by diacritics|Modification by diacritics]]. {{lang|km|អ៊ា}}, the o-series of {{lang|km|ា}}, is slightly distinct from {{lang|km|ៀ}}. ({{lang|km|អ៊ា}} ~ "air" vs {{lang|km|ៀ}} ~ "ear") |- | <big>{{lang|km|ិ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អិ}}</big> | {{IPA|[ə], [e]}} | {{IPA|[ɨ], [i]}} |''e'' |''i'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ĕ}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ĭ}}'' | ''i'' | style="text-align:left;" | Pronounced {{IPA|[e]}}/{{IPA|[i]}} in syllables with no written final consonant (a glottal stop is then added if the syllable is stressed; however in some words the vowel is silent when final, and in some words in which it is not word-final it is pronounced {{IPA|[əj]}}). In the o-series, combines with final យ ''yô'' to sound {{IPA|[iː]}}. (See also [[#Modification by diacritics|Modification by diacritics]].) |- | <big>{{lang|km|ី}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អី}}</big> | {{IPA|[əj]}} | {{IPA|[iː]}} |''ei'' |''i'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ei}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|i}}'' | ''ī'' | |- | <big>{{lang|km|ឹ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អឹ}}</big> | {{IPA|[ə]}} | {{IPA|[ɨ]}} |''oe'' |''ue'' | colspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|km|œ̆}}'' |''ẏ'' | |- | <big>{{lang|km|ឺ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អឺ}}</big> | {{IPA|[əɨ]}} | {{IPA|[ɨː]}} |''eu'' |''ueu'' | colspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|km|œ}}'' |''ȳ'' | |- | <big>{{lang|km|ុ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អុ}}</big> | {{IPA|[o]}} | {{IPA|[u]}} |''o'' |''u'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ŏ}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ŭ}}'' |''u'' | style="text-align:left;" | See [[#Modification by diacritics|Modification by diacritics]]. In a stressed syllable with no written final consonant, the vowel is followed by a glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, or by {{IPA|[k]}} in the word តុ ''tŏk'' ("table") (but the vowel is silent when final in certain words). |- | <big>{{lang|km|ូ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អូ}}</big> | {{IPA|[ou]}} | {{IPA|[uː]}} |''ou'' |''u'' | ''{{transliteration|km|o}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|u}}'' |''ū'' | style="text-align:left;" | Becomes {{IPA|[əw]}}/{{IPA|[ɨw]}} before a final {{lang|km|វ}} ''vô''. |- | <big>{{lang|km|ួ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អួ}}</big> | colspan="2"|{{IPA|[uə]}} | colspan="2" |''uo'' | colspan="2"|''{{transliteration|km|uŏ}}'' |''ua'' | |- | <big>{{lang|km|ើ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អើ}}</big> | {{IPA|[aə]}} | {{IPA|[əː]}} |''aeu'' |''eu'' | ''{{transliteration|km|aeu}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|eu}}'' |''oe'' | style="text-align:left;" | See [[#Modification by diacritics|Modification by diacritics]]. |- | <big>{{lang|km|ឿ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អឿ}}</big> | colspan="2" | {{IPA|[ɨə]}} | colspan="2" |''oea'' | colspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|km|œă}}'' |''ẏa'' | |- | <big>{{lang|km|ៀ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អៀ}}</big> | colspan="2" | {{IPA|[iə]}} | colspan="2" |''ie'' | colspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|km|iĕ}}'' | ''ia'' | |- | <big>{{lang|km|េ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អេ}}</big> | {{IPA|[ei]}} | {{IPA|[eː]}} | colspan="2" |''e'' | colspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|km|é}}'' |''e'' | style="text-align:left;" | Becomes {{IPA|[ə]}}/{{IPA|[ɨ]}} before palatals (or in the a-series, {{IPA|[a]}} before {{IPA|[c]}} in some words). Pronounced {{IPA|[ae]}}/{{IPA|[ɛː]}} in some words. See also [[#Modification by diacritics|Modification by diacritics]]. |- | <big>{{lang|km|ែ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អែ}}</big> | {{IPA|[ae]}} | {{IPA|[ɛː]}} |''ae'' |''eae'' | colspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|km|ê}}'' |''ae'' | style="text-align:left;" | See [[#Modification by diacritics|Modification by diacritics]]. |- | <big>{{lang|km|ៃ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អៃ}}</big> | {{IPA|[aj]}} | {{IPA|[ɨj]}} |''ai'' |''ey'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ai}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ey}}'' |''ai'' | |- | <big>{{lang|km|ោ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អោ}}</big> | {{IPA|[ao]}} | {{IPA|[oː]}} |''ao'' |''ou'' | ''{{transliteration|km|aô}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|oŭ}}'' |''o'' | style="text-align:left;" | See [[#Modification by diacritics|Modification by diacritics]]. |- | <big>{{lang|km|ៅ}}</big> | <big>{{lang|km|អៅ}}</big> | {{IPA|[aw]}} | {{IPA|[ɨw]}} |''au'' |''ov'' | ''{{transliteration|km|au}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ŏu}}'' |''au'' | |} The spoken name of each dependent vowel consists of the word {{lang|km|ស្រៈ}} ''srăk'' {{IPA|[sraʔ]}}("vowel") followed by the vowel's a-series value preceded by a glottal stop (and also followed by a glottal stop in the case of short vowels). ===Modification by diacritics=== The addition of some of the [[#Diacritics|Khmer diacritics]] can modify the length and value of inherent or dependent vowels. The following table shows combinations with the ''{{transliteration|km|nĭkkôhĕt}}'' and ''{{transliteration|km|reăhmŭkh}}'' diacritics, representing final {{IPA|[m]}} and {{IPA|[h]}}. They are shown with the a-series consonant {{lang|km|អ}} ''’â''. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! rowspan="2" | Combination ! colspan="2" | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] ! colspan="2" | [[Romanization of Khmer#Geographic Department|GD]] ! colspan="2" | [[Romanization of Khmer#UNGEGN|UNGEGN]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Romanization of Khmer#ALA-LC Romanization Tables|ALA-LC]] ! rowspan="2" | Notes |- ! a-series ! o-series ! a-series ! o-series ! a-series ! o-series |- | <big>{{lang|km|អុំ}}</big> | {{IPA|[om]}} | {{IPA|[um]}} | ''om'' | ''um'' | ''{{transliteration|km|om}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ŭm}}'' | ''uṃ'' | |- | <big>{{lang|km|អំ}}</big> | {{IPA|[ɑm]}} | {{IPA|[um]}} |''am'' |''um'' | ''{{transliteration|km|âm}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|um}}'' | ''aṃ'' | style="text-align:left;" | The word {{lang|km|ធំ}} {{transliteration|km|thum}} ("big") is pronounced {{IPA|[tʰom]}} (but {{IPA|[tʰum]}} in some dialects). |- | <big>{{lang|km|អាំ}}</big> | {{IPA|[am]}} | {{IPA|[ŏəm]}} |''am'' |''oam'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ăm}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ŏâm}}'' |''āṃ'' | style="text-align:left;" | When followed by {{lang|km|ង}} {{transliteration|km|ngô}}, becomes {{IPA|[aŋ]}}/{{IPA|[eəŋ]}} ''ăng/eăng''. |- | <big>{{lang|km|អះ}}</big> | {{IPA|[ah]}} | {{IPA|[ĕəh]}} |''ah'' |''eah'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ăh}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|eăh}}'' |''aḥ'' | |- | <big>{{lang|km|អិះ}}</big> | {{IPA|[eh]}} | {{IPA|[ih]}} |''eh'' |''is'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ĕh}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ĭh}}'' |''iḥ'' | |- | <big>{{lang|km|អុះ}}</big> | {{IPA|[oh]}} | {{IPA|[uh]}} |''oh'' |''uh'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ŏh}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ŭh}}'' |''uḥ'' | |- | <big>{{lang|km|អេះ}}</big> | {{IPA|[eh]}} | {{IPA|[ih]}} | colspan="2" |''eh'' | colspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|km|éh}}'' |''eḥ'' | |- | <big>{{lang|km|អោះ}}</big> | {{IPA|[ɑh]}} | {{IPA|[ŭəh]}} |''aoh'' |''uoh'' | ''{{transliteration|km|aôh}}'' | ''{{transliteration|km|ŏăh}}'' |''oaḥ'' | style="text-align:left;" | The word {{lang|km|នោះ}} {{transliteration|km|nŏăh}} ("that") can be pronounced {{IPA|[nuh]}}. |} The first four configurations listed here are treated as dependent vowels in their own right, and have names constructed in the same way as for the other dependent vowels (described in the previous section). Other rarer configurations with the ''{{transliteration|km|reăhmŭkh}}'' are {{lang|km|អើះ}} (or {{lang|km|អឹះ}}), pronounced {{IPA|[əh]}}, and {{lang|km|អែះ}}, pronounced {{IPA|[eh]}}. The word {{lang|km|ចា៎ះ}} "yes" (used by women) is pronounced [caː] and rarely {{IPA|[caːh]}}. The ''bânták'' (a small vertical line written over the final consonant of a syllable) has the following effects: *in a syllable with inherent ''â'', the vowel is shortened to {{IPA|[ɑ]}}, UN transcription ''á'' *in a syllable with inherent ''ô'', the vowel is modified to {{IPA|[u]}} before a final [[labial consonant|labial]], otherwise usually to {{IPA|[ŏə]}}; UN transcription ''ó'' *in a syllable with the ''a'' dependent vowel symbol ([[File:Khmer a.png]]) in the a-series, the vowel is shortened to {{IPA|[a]}}, UN transcription ''ă'' *in a syllable with that vowel symbol in the o-series, the vowel is modified to {{IPA|[ŏə]}}, UN transcription ''oă'', or to {{IPA|[ĕə]}} ''eă'' before ''k'', ''ng'', ''h'' The ''{{transliteration|km|sanhyoŭk sannha}}'' is equivalent to the ''a'' dependent vowel with the ''{{transliteration|km|bântăk}}''. However, its o-series pronunciation becomes {{IPA|[ɨ]}} before final ''y'', and {{IPA|[ɔə]}} before final (silent) ''r''. The ''yŭkôlpĭntŭ'' (pair of dots) represents {{IPA|[a]}} (a-series) or {{IPA|[ĕə]}} (o-series), followed by a glottal stop. ===Consonants with no dependent vowel=== There are three environments where a consonant may appear without a dependent vowel. The rules governing the inherent vowel differ for all three environments. Consonants may be written with no dependent vowel as an initial consonant of a [[Khmer language#Stress|weak syllable]], an initial consonant of a strong syllable or as the final letter of a written word. In careful speech, initial consonants without a dependent vowel in weak initial syllables are pronounced with their inherent vowel shortened as if modified by the ''bânták'' diacritic (see previous section). For example the first-series letter "{{lang|km|ច}}" in "{{lang|km|ចន្លុះ}}" ("torch") is pronounced with the short vowel {{IPA|/ɑ/}}. The second-series letter "{{lang|km|ព}}" in "{{lang|km|ពន្លឺ}}" ("light") is pronounced with the short diphthong {{IPA|/ŏə/}}. In casual speech, these are most often reduced to {{IPA|/ə/}} for both series. Initial consonants in strong syllables without written vowels are pronounced with their inherent vowels. The word {{lang|km|ចង}} ("to tie") is pronounced {{IPA|[cɑːŋ]}}, {{lang|km|ជត}} ("weak", "to sink") is pronounced {{IPA|[cɔːt]}}. In some words, however, the inherent vowel is pronounced in its reduced form, as if modified by a ''bântăk'' diacritic, even though the diacritic is not written (e.g. {{lang|km|សព}} {{IPA|[sɑp]}} "corpse"). Such reduction regularly takes place in words ending with a consonant with a silent subscript (such as {{lang|km|សព្វ}} {{IPA|[sɑp]}} "every"), although in most such words it is the ''bânták''-reduced form of the vowel ''a'' that is heard, as in {{lang|km|សព្ទ}} {{IPA|[sap]}} "noise". The word {{lang|km|អ្នក}} "you, person" has the highly irregular pronunciation {{IPA|[nĕəʔ]}}. Consonants written as the final letter of a word usually represent a word-final sound and are pronounced without any following vowel and, in the case of stops, with [[no audible release]] as in the examples above. However, in some words adopted from [[Pali]] and [[Sanskrit]], what would appear to be a final consonant under normal rules can actually be the initial consonant of a following syllable and pronounced with a short vowel as if followed by {{lang|km|ាក់}}. For example, according to rules for native Khmer words, {{lang|km|សុភ}} ("good", "clean", "beautiful") would appear to be a single syllable, but, being derived from Pali ''subha'', it is pronounced {{IPA|[sopʰĕəʔ]}}. ===Ligatures=== Most consonants, including a few of the subscripts, form [[Ligature (typography)|ligatures]] with the vowel {{transliteration|km|a}} (ា) and with all other dependent vowels that contain the same cane-like symbol. Most of these ligatures are easily recognizable, but a few may not be, particularly those involving the letter {{lang|km|ប}} {{transliteration|km|bâ}}. This combines with the a vowel in the form {{lang|km|បា}}, created to differentiate it from the consonant symbol {{lang|km|ហ}} {{transliteration|km|hâ}} and also from the ligature for {{lang|km|ច}} {{transliteration|km|châ}} with {{transliteration|km|a}} ({{lang|km|ចា}}). Some more examples of ligatured symbols follow: : {{lang|km|បៅ}} {{transliteration|km|bau}} {{IPA|[ɓaw]}} Another example with {{lang|km|ប}} {{transliteration|km|bâ}}, forming a similar ligature to that described above. Here the vowel is not a itself, but another vowel (au) which contains the cane-like stroke of that vowel as a graphical element. : {{lang|km|លា}} {{transliteration|km|léa}} {{IPA|[liə]}} An example of the vowel a forming a connection with the [[serif]] of a consonant. : {{lang|km|ផ្បា}} {{transliteration|km|phba}} {{IPA|[pʰɓaː]}} Subscript consonants with ascending strokes above the baseline also form ligatures with the {{transliteration|km|a}} vowel symbol. : {{lang|km|ម្សៅ}} {{transliteration|km|msau}} {{IPA|[msaw]}} Another example of a subscript consonant forming a ligature, this time with the vowel {{transliteration|km|au}}. : {{lang|km|ត្រា}} {{transliteration|km|tra}} {{IPA|[traː]}} The subscript for {{lang|km|រ}} {{transliteration|km|rô}} is written to the left of the main consonant, in this case {{lang|km|ត}} {{transliteration|km|tâ}}, which here forms a ligature with {{transliteration|km|a}}.
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