Editing Locus of control (section)

=={{anchor|Applications of locus of control theory}}Applications==
Locus of control's best known application may have been in the area of [[health psychology]], largely due to the work of Kenneth Wallston. Scales to measure locus of control in the health domain were reviewed by Furnham and Steele  in 1993. The best-known are the Health Locus of Control Scale and the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale, or MHLC.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallston |first1=Barbara S. |last2=Wallston |first2=Kenneth A. |last3=Kaplan |first3=Gordon D.. |last4=Maides |first4=Shirley A. |title=Development and validation of the Health Locus of Control (HLC) Scale |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |date=August 1976 |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=580–585 |doi=10.1037/0022-006X.44.4.580 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1177/109019817800600107 |pmid = 689890|title = Development of the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control (MHLC) Scales|journal = Health Education Monographs|volume = 6|issue = 2|pages = 160–170|year = 1978|last1 = Wallston|first1 = Kenneth A.|last2 = Strudler Wallston|first2 = Barbara|last3 = Devellis|first3 = Robert|s2cid = 42985147}}</ref> The latter scale is based on the idea (echoing Levenson's earlier work) that health may be attributed to three sources: internal factors (such as self-determination of a healthy lifestyle), powerful others (such as one's doctor) or luck (which is very dangerous as lifestyle advice will be ignored – these people are very difficult to help).

Some of the scales reviewed by Furnham and Steele (1993) relate to health in more specific domains, such as [[obesity]] (for example, Saltzer's (1982) Weight Locus of Control Scale or Stotland and Zuroff's (1990) Dieting Beliefs Scale), mental health (such as Wood and Letak's (1982) Mental Health Locus of Control Scale or the Depression Locus of Control Scale of Whiteman, Desmond and Price, 1987) and cancer (the Cancer Locus of Control Scale of Pruyn et al., 1988). In discussing applications of the concept to health psychology Furnham and Steele refer to Claire Bradley's work, linking locus of control to the management of [[diabetes mellitus]]. Empirical data on health locus of control in a number of fields was reviewed by Norman and Bennett in 1995; they note that data on whether certain health-related behaviors are related to internal health locus of control have been ambiguous. They note that some studies found that internal health locus of control is linked with increased exercise, but cite other studies which found a weak (or no) relationship between exercise behaviors (such as [[jogging]]) and internal health locus of control. A similar ambiguity is noted for data on the relationship between internal health locus of control and other health-related behaviors (such as [[breast self-examination]], weight control and preventive-health behavior). Of particular interest are the data cited on the relationship between internal health locus of control and alcohol consumption.

Norman and Bennett note that some studies that compared alcoholics with non-alcoholics suggest [[alcoholism]] is linked to increased externality for health locus of control; however, other studies have linked alcoholism with increased internality. Similar ambiguity has been found in studies of alcohol consumption in the general, non-alcoholic population. They are more optimistic in reviewing the literature on the relationship between internal health locus of control and [[smoking cessation]], although they also point out that there are grounds for supposing that powerful-others and internal-health loci of control may be linked with this behavior. It is thought that, rather than being caused by one or the other, that alcoholism is directly related to the strength of the locus, regardless of type, internal or external.

They argue that a stronger relationship is found when health locus of control is assessed for specific domains than when general measures are taken. Overall, studies using behavior-specific health locus scales have tended to produce more positive results.<ref>{{Cite book | doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-590241-0.50013-7 |chapter = Locus of Control|title = Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes|pages = 413–499|year = 1991|last1 = Lefcourt|first1 = Herbert M.|isbn = 978-0-12-590241-0}}</ref> These scales have been found to be more predictive of general behavior than more general scales, such as the MHLC scale.{{sfn|Norman| Bennett| 1995| p=72}} Norman and Bennett cite several studies that used health-related locus-of-control scales in specific domains (including smoking cessation),<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/08870449208403186 |title = The development of a smoking-specific locus of control scale|journal = Psychology & Health|volume = 6|issue = 3|pages = 227–246|year = 1992|last1 = Georgiou|first1 = Amanda|last2 = Bradley|first2 = Clare}}</ref> [[diabetes]],<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.2466/pr0.1987.61.3.763 |pmid = 3438399|title = Development of a Diabetes Locus of Control Scale|journal = Psychological Reports|volume = 61|issue = 3|pages = 763–770|year = 1987|last1 = Ferraro|first1 = Laurie A.|last2 = Price|first2 = James H.|last3 = Desmond|first3 = Sharon M.|last4 = Roberts|first4 = Stephen M.|s2cid = 19919174}}</ref> tablet-treated diabetes,<ref>{{Cite journal |pmid = 2147629|year = 1990|last1 = Bradley|first1 = C.|title = Scales to measure perceived control developed specifically for people with tablet-treated diabetes|journal = Diabetic Medicine|volume = 7|issue = 8|pages = 685–94|last2 = Lewis|first2 = K. S.|last3 = Jennings|first3 = A. M.|last4 = Ward|first4 = J. D.|doi = 10.1111/j.1464-5491.1990.tb01471.x|s2cid = 31653221}}</ref> [[hypertension]],<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1007/BF00846477 | pmid=3669072| title=Determinants of adherence to medical regimens by hypertensive patients| journal=Journal of Behavioral Medicine| volume=10| issue=4| pages=377–394| year=1987| last1=Stanton| first1=Annette L.| s2cid=2923301}}</ref> [[arthritis]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nicassio |first1=PM |last2=Wallston |first2=KA |last3=Callahan |first3=LF |last4=Herbert |first4=M |last5=Pincus |first5=T |title=The measurement of helplessness in rheumatoid arthritis. The development of the arthritis helplessness index |journal=The Journal of Rheumatology |date=June 1985 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=462–7 |pmid=4045844 }}</ref> [[cancer]],<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Pruyn JF, van den Borne HW, de Reuver RS, de Boer MF, Bosman LJ, ter Pelkwijk MA, de Jong PC |title=De Locus of Control-schaal voor Kankerpatienten |trans-title=The Locus of Control Scale for Cancer Patients |journal=Tijdschrift voor Sociale Gezondheidszorg |year=1988 |volume=66 |pages=404–408}}</ref> and [[heart disease|heart]] and [[lung disease]].<ref>{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |last=Allison |first=K. |year=1987 |title=Perceived control as a determinant of preventive health behaviour for heart disease and lung cancer |publisher=University of Toronto}}</ref>

They also argue that health locus of control is better at predicting health-related behavior if studied in conjunction with health value (the value people attach to their health), suggesting that health value is an important [[moderator variable]] in the health locus of control relationship. For example, Weiss and Larsen (1990) found an increased relationship between internal health locus of control and health when health value was assessed.{{sfn|Norman |Bennett|1995}} Despite the importance Norman and Bennett attach to specific measures of locus of control, there are general textbooks on personality which cite studies linking internal locus of control with improved physical health, mental health and [[quality of life]] in people with diverse conditions: [[HIV]], [[migraines]], [[diabetes]], [[kidney disease]] and [[epilepsy]].{{sfn|Maltby|Day |Macaskill|2007}}

During the 1970s and 1980s, Whyte correlated locus of control with the academic success of students enrolled in higher-education courses. Students who were more internally controlled believed that hard work and focus would result in successful academic progress, and they performed better academically. Those students who were identified as more externally controlled (believing that their future depended upon luck or fate) tended to have lower academic-performance levels.  [[Cassandra B. Whyte]] researched how control tendency influenced behavioral outcomes in the academic realm by examining the effects of various modes of counseling on grade improvements and the locus of control of high-risk college students.{{sfn|Whyte| 1980}}{{sfn|Whyte|1978}}<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Whyte | first1 = C. B. | year = 1977 | title = High-risk college freshman and locus of control | journal = The Humanist Educator | volume = 16 | issue = 1| pages = 2–5 | doi=10.1002/j.2164-6163.1977.tb00177.x}}</ref>

Rotter also looked at studies regarding the correlation between gambling and either an internal or external locus of control.  For internals, gambling is more reserved.  When betting, they primarily focus on safe and moderate wagers.  Externals, however, take more chances and, for example, bet more on a card or number that has not appeared for a certain period, under the notion that this card or number has a higher chance of occurring, a belief known as the [[gambler's fallacy]].{{sfn|Hock|2008}}

===Organizational psychology and religion===
Other fields to which the concept has been applied include [[industrial and organizational psychology]], [[sports psychology]], [[educational psychology]] and the [[psychology of religion]]. Richard Kahoe has published work in the latter field, suggesting that intrinsic religious orientation correlates positively (and extrinsic religious orientation correlates negatively) with internal locus.{{sfn|Kahoe|1974}} Of relevance to both health psychology and the psychology of religion is the work of Holt, Clark, Kreuter and Rubio (2003) on a questionnaire to assess spiritual-health locus of control. The authors distinguished between an active spiritual-health locus of control (in which "God empowers the individual to take healthy actions"{{sfn|Holt| Clark| Kreuter| Rubio|2003|p=294}}) and a more passive spiritual-health locus of control (where health is left up to God). In [[industrial and organizational psychology]], it has been found that internals are more likely to take positive action to change their jobs (rather than merely talk about occupational change) than externals.{{sfn|Allen|Weeks|Moffitt|2005}}{{sfn|Maltby|Day |Macaskill|2007}} Locus of control relates to a wide variety of work variables, with work-specific measures relating more strongly than general measures.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wang | first1 = Q. | last2 = Bowling | first2 = N. A. | last3 = Eschleman | first3 = K. J. | year = 2010 | title = A meta-analytic examination of work and general locus of control | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 95 | issue = 4| pages = 761–768 | doi = 10.1037/a0017707 | pmid = 20604595 }}</ref> In Educational setting, some research has shown that students who were intrinsically motivated had processed reading material more deeply and had better academic performance than students with extrinsic motivation.<ref name="less is sometimes more">{{cite journal | doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.4.755 | title=Less is sometimes more: Goal content matters | date=2004 | last1=Vansteenkiste | first1=Maarten | last2=Simons | first2=Joke | last3=Lens | first3=Willy | last4=Soenens | first4=Bart | last5=Matos | first5=Lennia | last6=Lacante | first6=Marlies | journal=Journal of Educational Psychology | volume=96 | issue=4 | pages=755–764 | url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/627446 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Consumer research===
Locus of control has also been applied to the field of consumer research. For example, Martin, Veer and Pervan (2007) examined how the weight locus of control of women (i.e., beliefs about the control of body weight) influence how they react to female models in advertising of different body shapes. They found that women who believe they can control their weight ("internals"), respond most favorably to slim models in advertising, and this favorable response is mediated by self-referencing. In contrast, women who feel powerless about their weight ("externals"), self-reference larger-sized models, but only prefer larger-sized models when the advertisement is for a non-fattening product. For fattening products, they exhibit a similar preference for larger-sized models and slim models. The weight locus of control measure was also found to be correlated with measures for weight control beliefs and willpower.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11002-007-9014-1 |title=Self-referencing and consumer evaluations of larger-sized female models: A weight locus of control perspective |journal=Marketing Letters |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=197–209 |year=2007 |last1=Martin |first1=Brett A. S |last2=Veer |first2=Ekant |last3=Pervan |first3=Simon J |s2cid=17175873 |hdl=10.1007/s11002-007-9014-1 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

===Political ideology===
Locus of control has been linked to [[political ideology]]. In the 1972 U.S. presidential election, research of college students found that those with an internal locus of control were substantially more likely to register as a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], while those with an external locus of control were substantially more likely to register as a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]].<ref name=pmid4814098>{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/h0035997 |pmid=4814098 |title=Locus of control and political participation of college students: A comparison of unidimensional and multidimensional approaches |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=54–58 |year=1974 |last1=Gootnick |first1=Andrew T |hdl=10150/554618 |url=https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/10150/554618/1/AZU_TD_BOX86_E9791_1973_61.pdf |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A 2011 study surveying students at [[Cameron University]] in Oklahoma found similar results,<ref>Laverghetta, Antonio. "[http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p556976_index.html The Relationship between the Big 5 Personality factors, Locus of Control, and Political Ideology]{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Oklahoma Research Day, Cameron University, Lawton, OK, Nov 04, 2011. 2014-11-25; URL accessed 14 November 2015</ref> although these studies were limited in scope. Consistent with these findings, Kaye Sweetser (2014) found that Republicans significantly displayed greater internal locus of control than Democrats and Independents.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1177/0002764213506215 | title=Partisan Personality: The Psychological Differences Between Democrats and Republicans, and Independents Somewhere in Between| journal=American Behavioral Scientist| volume=58| issue=9| pages=1183–1194| year=2014| last1=Sweetser| first1=Kaye D.| s2cid=145674720|url=http://www.kayesweetser.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/04/sweetser-2014.pdf }}</ref>

Those with an internal locus of control are more likely to be of higher [[socioeconomic status]], and are more likely to be politically involved (e.g., following political news, joining a political organization)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = A. | last2 = Vigoda | first2 = E. | last3 = Samorly | first3 = A. | year = 2001 | title = Analysis of the mediating effect of personal psychological variables on the relationship between socioeconomic status and political participation: A structural equations framework | journal = Political Psychology | volume = 22 | issue = 4| pages = 727–757 | doi=10.1111/0162-895x.00260}}</ref> Those with an internal locus of control are also more likely to vote.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Blanchard | first1 = E. | last2 = Scarboro | first2 = M. | year = 1973 | title = Locus of control and the prediction of voting behavior in college students | journal = Journal of Social Psychology | volume = 89 | issue = 1| pages = 123–129 | doi=10.1080/00224545.1973.9922576| pmid = 4694574 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Deutchman | first1 = I | year = 1985 | title = Internal-External Locus of Control, power and political participation | journal = Psychological Reports | volume = 57 | issue = 3| pages = 835–843 | doi=10.2466/pr0.1985.57.3.835| s2cid = 145050676 }}</ref>