Editing Magistrate (section)

==English common law tradition==

===United Kingdom===

====England and Wales====
{{Main|Magistrate (England and Wales)}}
Magistrates hear '[[summary offence]]s' and some '[[Hybrid offence#English law|triable-either-way offences]]' in the [[Courts of England and Wales]]. In 2021, there were 12,651 magistrates, a number that has fallen steadily in recent years, decreasing by 50% from 25,170 since 2012.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |title=Diversity of the judiciary: Legal professions, new appointments and current post-holders – 2021 Statistics |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/diversity-of-the-judiciary-2021-statistics/diversity-of-the-judiciary-2021-statistics-report |access-date=21 May 2022 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> Magistrates have a maximum sentencing power of up to 12 months' imprisonment, and/or an unlimited fine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Magistrates' Court |url=https://www.judiciary.uk/you-and-the-judiciary/going-to-court/magistrates-court/ |access-date=21 May 2022 |website=www.judiciary.uk |language=en-US}}</ref> In practice, magistrates have a wide range of sentencing options, which include issuing [[Fine (penalty)|fines]], imposing community orders, or dealing with offences by means of a [[Discharge (sentence)|discharge]]. In more serious cases, where magistrates consider that their sentencing powers are insufficient, they can send '[[Hybrid offence|either-way]]' offenders to the [[Crown Court]] for sentencing.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=legislation.gov.uk |title=Magistrates' Court Act 1980 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1980/43 |access-date=21 May 2022 |website=Legislation.gov.uk}}</ref>

All criminal cases begin in a magistrates' court. The most serious cases (for example murder, rape, etc) are sent to the Crown Court, although magistrates' will often decide on issues such as bail and any preliminary matters.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Become a magistrate |url=https://www.gov.uk/become-magistrate |access-date=21 May 2022 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> Lesser offences, including all summary only offences and some either-way offences will be dealt with entirely in the magistrates' court.<ref name=":0" /> A wide range of other legal matters are within the remit of magistrates, such as matters relating to licensing and debt collection,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The jurisdiction of the magistrates court (Law in action: learning through scripted role plays) at UKCLE |url=https://ials.sas.ac.uk/ukcle/78.158.56.101/archive/law/students/resources-for-students/jurisdiction/index.html |access-date=21 May 2022 |website=ials.sas.ac.uk}}</ref> for example. In the past, magistrates have been responsible for granting licences to sell alcohol;<ref>Under a law of 1729 which instituted Brewster sessions, a special meeting of quarter sessions (Richardson, John (1974) ''The Local Historian's Encyclopedia''. New Barnet: Historical Publications; p. 270; Hey, David, ed. (1996) ''The Oxford Companion to Local and Family History''. Oxford University Press; pp. 46–47)</ref> this function is now exercised by local councils, although there is a right of appeal to the magistrates' court. Magistrates are also responsible for granting orders such as search warrants to the police and other authorities. It used to be a requirement that they live within a {{convert|15|mi|km|adj=on}} radius of the area they preside over (the ''commission area'') in case they are needed to sign a warrant after hours. However, ''commission areas'' were replaced with ''Local Justice Areas'' by the [[Courts Act 2003]], meaning magistrates no longer need to live within {{convert|15|mi|km}}, although, in practice, many still do. Section 7 of the Courts Act 2003 states that "There shall be a commission of the peace for England and Wales—…b) addressed generally, and not by name, to all such persons as may from time to time hold office as justices of the peace for England and Wales". Thus, every magistrate in England and Wales may act as a magistrate anywhere in England or Wales.

There are two types of magistrates<ref>{{cite web|website=[[Courts and Tribunals Judiciary]]|url=http://www.judiciary.gov.uk/about-the-judiciary/who-are-the-judiciary/judicial-roles/magistrates/ |title=Magistrates: who are they...|accessdate= 4 January 2015}}</ref> in England and Wales: Justices of the Peace, and District Judges (formerly known as [[stipendiary magistrate]]s). Justices of the peace (JPs) are trained volunteers appointed from the local community; the nature of their role means that it is not necessary for them to be legally qualified, but they do have the assistance of a legally qualified adviser in Court.<ref name=":1" /> JPs require intelligence, common sense, integrity, and the capacity to act fairly. They are selected by a local advisory committee and only recommended to the [[Lord Chancellor]] for appointment if they can demonstrate the six key qualities required of a judicial office holder, these are: (a) good character, (b) commitment and reliability, (c) social awareness, (d) sound judgement, (e) understanding and communication and (f) maturity and sound temperament.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About magistrates |url=https://www.magistrates-association.org.uk/About-magistrates |access-date=21 May 2022 |publisher=Magistrates' Association}}</ref> Membership is widely spread throughout the area covered and drawn from all walks of life. Police officers, [[traffic warden]]s, RSPCA employees and certain other categories of employees, as well as their close relatives, will not be appointed, nor will those convicted of certain criminal offences including recent minor offences.

All new justices of the peace undergo comprehensive training before sitting. There is a mentoring programme to help guide new appointees (mentors are magistrates with at least three years' service).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/CrimeJusticeAndTheLaw/Becomingamagistrate/DG_071384|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204125539/http://www.direct.gov.uk./en/CrimeJusticeAndTheLaw/Becomingamagistrate/DG_071384|title=The Magistracy and the work of magistrates|archivedate=4 December 2008}}</ref> The training, delivered by the [[Judicial College]], covers the necessary law and procedure required for their role. They continue to receive training throughout their judicial career, and are appraised every four years (every two years for a Presiding Justice) to check that they continue to remain competent in their role.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Training of magistrates |url=https://www.magistrates-association.org.uk/About-magistrates/Training-of-magistrates#:~:text=First%20appraisal%20About%2012-18,magistrate%20successfully%20demonstrates%20the%20competences. |access-date=21 May 2022 |publisher=Magistrates' Association}}</ref> Additional training is given to justices choosing to sit in the Youth Court or those dealing with family matters. New JPs sit with mentors on at least six occasions during their first eighteen months. Justices of the peace are unpaid appointees, but they may receive allowances to cover travelling expenses, subsistence and loss of earnings for those not paid by their employer while sitting as a magistrate, up to a maximum of £116.78 a day. A justice of the peace may sit at any magistrates' court in England and Wales, but in practice, they are appointed to their local bench (a colloquial and legal term for the local court). Justices of the peace will normally sit as a panel of three, with two as a minimum in most cases, except those cases dealt with under the [[single justice procedure]]. Many are members of the [[Magistrates' Association]], which provides advice and training and also represents magistrates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What we do |url=https://www.magistrates-association.org.uk/What-We-Do |access-date=21 May 2022 |publisher=Magistrates' Association}}</ref>

The other type of magistrate is known as a district judge (magistrates' courts). Unlike justices of the peace, district judges (magistrates' courts) usually sit alone, although still have the benefit of a legal adviser. They are paid Judges appointed by open competition through a process administered by the [[Judicial Appointments Commission|Judicial Appointments Commission (JAC)]] and are required to be qualified solicitors, barristers, or chartered legal executives. Some also sit in the family court. Questions have been raised by the [[Magistrates' Association]] as to the legal safeguards of a single district judge allowed to hear a case, decide the outcome, and pass sentence without reference to another party,<ref>{{cite journal |author=John Thornhill, Chairman of the Magistrates' Association –|journal=Solicitors Journal |date=April 2011}}</ref> however the criminal procedure rules do require some cases to be heard by a district judge, such as those matters relating to extradition or where the contested issue is a disputed point of law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Criminal Procedure Rules 2020 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2020/759/contents/made |access-date=21 May 2022 |website=Legislation.gov.uk}}</ref>

According to the official statistics for diversity of the judiciary in April 2021, 56% of sitting magistrates were women, 13% were Black, Asian and minority ethnic and 82% per aged above 50.<ref name="auto"/>

====Scotland====
In the [[courts of Scotland]], the office of [[stipendiary magistrate]] was established by Section 5 of the District Courts (Scotland) Act 1975,<ref name="act_uk_1975_c20">{{Cite legislation UK|chapter=20|act=District Courts (Scotland) Act 1975|type=act|year=1975}}</ref>{{RP|Section 5}} and was replaced by the office of [[sheriff|summary sheriff]] by Section 218 of the [[Courts Reform (Scotland) Act 2014]].<ref>{{Cite legislation Scotland|act=Courts Reform (Scotland) Act 2014|chapter=18|type=act|year=2014}}</ref> In [[Scotland]], the lowest level of law-court, a justice of the peace court, is presided over by a [[justice of the peace]], who like in England and Wales are trained volunteers. Stipendiary magistrates are, ''ex officio'', justices of the peace, and when sitting in a JP court had the summary criminal jurisdiction and powers of a sheriff.<ref name="act_uk_1975_c20" />{{RP|Section 5}}

===Australia===
====Federal magistrate====
A federal magistrate was an office created on 23 December 1999 along with the establishment of the [[Federal Magistrates' Court]] by the [[Australian Government]] as a result of royal assent of the ''Federal Magistrates Act 1999 (Cth)''.<ref name="court name">[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/fma1999186/s8.html Federal Magistrates Act 1999 (Cth) s 8]</ref> Its first judicial officers were appointed in 2000; it first applications were filed on 23 June 2000 and the Court's first sittings were conducted on 3 July 2000 in [[Adelaide]], [[Brisbane]], [[Canberra]], [[Melbourne]], {{NSWcity|Newcastle}}, [[Parramatta]] and [[Townsville]].

The Federal Magistrates' Court of Australia dealt with more minor [[Commonwealth]] law matters which had previously been heard by the [[Federal Court of Australia]] ([[administrative law]], [[bankruptcy]], [[consumer protection]], trade practices, [[human rights]], and [[copyright]]) or the [[Family Court of Australia|Family Court]] (divorce, [[child custody|residence]] [or custody], and contact with [or access to] the children, property division upon divorce, maintenance, and [[child support]]). In some areas, such as bankruptcy and copyright, the court had virtually unlimited jurisdiction.

The federal magistrates would hear shorter or less complex matters or matters in which the monetary sum in disputes does not exceed given amounts. For instance, property divisions where the total assets are A$700,000 or less and consumer law matters (trade practices) where the amount claimed is less than $750,000. The first [[Chief Federal Magistrate of Australia|Chief Federal Magistrate]], [[Diana Bryant]] left the court in 2004 when she was appointed Chief Justice of the Family Court of Australia, the third person to be appointed that position since the establishment of the Family Court.

Eventually, the Federal Magistrates' Court assumed a significant part of the workload of the Federal Court and the Family Court. By May 2004, the court was dealing with 73% of the total number of applications made in the three courts<ref>''[https://web.archive.org/web/20110406095412/http://www.fmc.gov.au/pubs/docs/04-05pt3.pdf Annual Report of the Federal Magistrates' Court 2004/2005'', PART THREE: PERFORMANCE</ref>). The Federal Magistrates' Court was exercising jurisdiction well in excess of that of the state magistrates' courts, and similar to that of the District and County courts of the Australian states.

On 12 April 2013, in recognition of its increased jurisdiction and its role as an intermediate court servicing regional centres as well as capital cities throughout Australia, the Federal Magistrates' Court was renamed the Federal Circuit Court of Australia, the Act renamed as the ''Federal Circuit Court of Australia Act 1999'', and its judicial officers received the title "judge" instead of "federal magistrate".<ref>[http://www.attorneygeneral.gov.au/Mediareleases/Pages/2013/Second%20quarter/12April2013-FederalCircuitCourt-of-Australia-and-new-judicial-complaintshandlingprocesscommence.aspx Federal Attorney-General's announcement] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420104325/http://www.attorneygeneral.gov.au/Mediareleases/Pages/2013/Second%20quarter/12April2013-FederalCircuitCourt-of-Australia-and-new-judicial-complaintshandlingprocesscommence.aspx |date=20 April 2013 }}</ref>

====State magistrate====
The state magistrates in Australia derive from the English magistrates. All magistrates are salaried officers.

The [[jurisdiction]] of the magistrates varies from [[States and territories of Australia|state-to-state]]. They preside over courts which are, depending on the state, called magistrates' courts, [[Local Court of New South Wales|Local Court]], or courts of petty sessions.

Magistrates hear [[bail]] applications, motor licensing applications, applications for orders restraining a given individual from approaching a specific person ("intervention orders" or "apprehended violence orders"), [[summary offence|summary criminal matters]], the least serious [[indictable offence|indictable criminal matters]], and civil matters where the disputed amount does not exceed A$40,000 to A$100,000 (depending on the state).

In some states, such as [[Queensland]] and [[New South Wales|NSW]], the magistrate may appear robed; although, some magistrates are known to prefer a business suit. Magistrates presiding in the [[Koori Court]] (which deals with [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] [[defendant]]s) were originally of a mind not to appear robed; however, elders within the Indigenous community urged magistrates to continue wearing robes to mark the solemnity of the court process to defendants. Robing is being considered for magistrates in other states; however, neither counsel nor solicitors appear robed in any Australian magistrates' court. Robing in summary courts is unlikely to extend to the legal profession.

Historically, magistrates in Australia have been referred to as "Your Worship". (From [[Old English]] ''weorthscipe'', meaning being worthy of respect.) However, members of the magistracy are now addressed as "Your Honour" in all states. This was partly to recognize the increasing role magistrates play in the administration of justice, but also to recognize the archaic nature of "Your Worship", and the tendency for witnesses and defendants to incorrectly use "Your Honour" in any event. It is also acceptable to address a magistrate simply as Sir or Madam.

===Hong Kong===
{{Main|Magistrates' Court (Hong Kong)}}
As of 2024, there are seven magistrates' courts in Hong Kong. Magistrates are appointed by the [[Chief Executive of Hong Kong|Chief Executive]] on the recommendation of the [[Judicial Officers Recommendation Commission]] and must be qualified barristers. Magistrates exercise criminal jurisdiction over a wide range of offences. Although there is a general limit of two years' imprisonment or a fine of HK$100,000, certain statutory provisions give Magistrates the power to sentence up to three years' imprisonment and to impose a fine up to HK$5,000,000.

===Bangladesh===
According to the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), 1898, there are two classes of magistrates in Bangladesh, namely judicial magistrate and executive magistrate.

There are four classes of judicial magistrate (chief metropolitan magistrate in metropolitan areas and chief judicial magistrate in other areas, magistrate of the first class, metropolitan magistrate in metropolitan areas), magistratem of the second class and magistrates of the third class.

====Executive magistrate====
{{Main|Executive Magistrate of Bangladesh }}
According to  section 10(6 )of the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) 1898, members of the Bangladesh Civil Service (Administration) Cadre in the capacity of assistant commissioner, upozila mirbahi officer and additional deputy commissioner shall be executive magistrates and may exercise the power of executive magistrates within their existing respective local areas. Besides this, according to the provision of the section 10(5), the government may, if it thinks it expedient or necessary, appoint any persons employed in the Bangladesh Civil Service (Administration) to be an executive magistrate and confer the powers of an executive magistrate on any such member.

Every administrative district has the following executive magistrates:

:'''[[Deputy Commissioner (Bangladesh)|District magistrate]]''': In every district and in every metropolitan area, the government shall appoint as many persons as it thinks fit to be executive magistrates and shall appoint one of them to be the district magistrate.

:'''Additional district magistrate ''': The government may also appoint any executive magistrate to be an additional district magistrate who shall have all or any of the powers of a district magistrate under the code or under any other law for the time being in force, as the government may direct.

:'''Additional deputy commissioner''':, all of whom are executive magistrates.

:'''Upazila nirbahi officer or sub-district executive officer'''

:'''Assistant commissioner''' including senior assistant commissioner and assistant commissioner (land).

===India===
{{Courts of India}}
{{See also|Judiciary of India}}
There are two classifications of magistrates: judicial magistrates, who are part of the [[Judiciary of India|judiciary]] (court), and executive magistrates, who are government administrative officials and belong to the executive branch of the government.

==== Judicial magistrates ====
There are four categories of magistrates in the judiciary of India. This classification is given in the [[Criminal Procedure Code, 1973 (India)|Criminal Procedure Code, 1973]] (CrPC). It stipulates that in each [[District Courts of India|sessions district]], there shall be:
* a chief judicial magistrate
* a sub-divisional judicial magistrate (SD-JM)
* a judicial magistrates first class (JFCM/JM-FC)

The [[Chief Judicial Magistrate Court|chief judicial magistrate]] [CJM] (including additional chief judicial magistrates) hear all types of criminal cases. All magistrates' courts are controlled by the CJM. who looks over the work of judicial magistrates, but cannot take any action against them. The CJM can only report the misbehavior of judicial magistrates to the High Court. A court of chief judicial magistrates can sentence a person to jail for up to seven years and impose fines up to any amount. The CJM is the most senior magistrate in their district.

There is a sub-divisional judicial magistrate (SDJM) in every subdivision. They hear cases related to the Dowry Act, EC Act, and other criminal cases. They also maintain and control the judicial court below them. A court of sub-divisional judicial magistrates may sentence a person to imprisonment for up to three years and impose a fine of up to {{INRconvert|10000}}. Judicial magistrates can try criminal cases.

A [[Courts of Judicial Magistrate of First Class|judicial magistrate of first class]] (also known as judicial first class magistrate) can sentence a person to jail for up to three years and impose a fine of up to {{INRConvert|10000}}.

==== Executive magistrates ====
An executive magistrate is an officer of the executive branch of the [[State governments of India|state government]] (e.g., government department, typically the land revenue department) rather than the Judicial branch. The primary mandate of an Executive Magistrate is to preserve public tranquility and prevent any actions that may disrupt peace and order. They are vested with specific powers under both the [[Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita]] (BNSS - the "Indian Citizen Safety Code") and the [[Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita]] (BNS - the "Indian Justice Code"). These powers are conferred by Sections 125–129, 152, 163, 164 and 166 of the BNSS. They are distinct from [[Judiciary of India|Judicial Magistrates]], who preside over courts, conduct trials and try criminal cases. These officers cannot try any accused nor pass verdicts. A person arrested on the orders of a court located outside the local jurisdiction should be produced before an executive magistrate who can also set the [[bail]] amount for the arrested individual to avoid police custody, depending on the terms of the [[Warrant (law)|warrant]]. The executive magistrate also can pass orders restraining persons from committing a particular act or preventing persons from entering an area ([[Unlawful assembly#India|Section 163]], BNSS). There is no specific provision to order a "[[curfew]]". The executive magistrates alone are authorised to use force against people. In plain language, they alone can disperse an "[[unlawful assembly]]". Technically, the police are to assist the executive magistrate. Executive magistrates can dictate to the police the manner of force ([[baton charge]], tear gas, blank fire, firing) and how much force should be used. They can also seek the assistance of the armed forces to quell a [[riot]].

There are, in each [[List of districts in India|revenue district]] (as opposed to a sessions district) the following kinds of executive magistrates:
* a [[district magistrate]] (DM)
* two or more additional district magistrates (ADM)
* four or more [[sub-divisional magistrate]]s (SDM)
* at least ten executive magistrates
All of the executive magistrates of the district, except the ADM, are under the control of the DM.

These magistrates are normally conferred on the officers of the Revenue Department, although an officer can be appointed exclusively as an executive magistrate. Normally, the [[District magistrate|collector]] of the district is appointed as the DM. Similarly, the sub-collectors/[[Sub Divisional Officer (Civil)|sub divisional officers]] are appointed as the SDMs. [[Tehsildar]]s and deputy/additional tehsildars are appointed as executive magistrates.

In some metropolitan areas, the government has conferred specific or full powers of an Executive Magistrate upon [[Commissioner of Police (India)|Police Commissioners]] and their deputies within the police commissionerate system.

The [[Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita|BNSS, 2023]] (''Section 15'') allows state governments to appoint "Special Executive Magistrates." These can be either existing Executive Magistrates or senior police officers ([[Superintendent of police (India)|Superintendent of Police]] or higher). They are appointed for specific areas or duties and are granted certain powers of Executive Magistrates, as determined by the state government. Their appointment is for a term decided by the state.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sarkar |first=Prasanjeet |date=2025-03-07 |title=Odisha grants SPs, DIGs, IGs executive magistrate powers under BNSS for faster law enforcement |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2025/Mar/07/odisha-grants-sps-digs-igs-executive-magistrate-powers-under-bnss-for-faster-law-enforcement#:~:text=Invoking%20section%2015%20of%20BNSS,Revenue%20and%20Disaster%20Management%20department. |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

Under the old [[Code of Criminal Procedure (India)|CrPC]], there was no distinction between the executive and judicial magistrates and some states still follow the old CrPC.

===New Zealand===
The position of '''stipendiary magistrate''' in New Zealand was renamed in 1980 to that of '''district court judge'''. The position was often known simply as "magistrate" or with the postnominal initials "SM" in newspapers' court reports.

In the late 1990s, a position of '''community magistrate''' was created for District Courts on a trial basis. A community magistrate sits in the hierarchy just below a district court judge. They only have criminal case jurisdiction. They are lay judicial officers, not needing to hold a law degree, although many do.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

===Sri Lanka===
In Sri Lanka, a magistrate is a [[judicial officer]] appointed to preside over a [[Magistrate's court (Sri Lanka)|magistrate's court]] to a particular jurisdiction under the ''Judicature Act No 02 of 1978''. The post was formally known as police magistrate when the courts were known as police magistrate courts. Magistrates have jurisdiction over the criminal cases filed under the penal code. They carry out first mortem and post mortem examinations, issue search warrants and arrest warrants, produce suspected persons and grant bail. In many cases, magistrates preside over primary courts<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=51&Itemid=64&lang=en|title=Judicial Hierarchy|last=ICTA|website=www.jsc.gov.lk}}</ref> [[Unofficial magistrate]]s can be appointed from among the senior lawyers of the local bar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.island.lk/2003/09/10//opinio02.html|title=opinio02|website=www.island.lk}}</ref> There are four types of magistrate

* Chief magistrate (only of the metropolitan area of [[Colombo]])
* Magistrate/municipal magistrate 
* Additional magistrate (found when there are more than one Magistrate in one station)
* Unofficial magistrate

===United States===
[[File:A_magistrate's_office_in_the_United_States.jpg|thumb|A magistrate's office in the United States]]
Magistrates are somewhat less common in the United States than in Europe, but the position does exist in some state jurisdictions and in federal courts.

The term "magistrate" is often used (chiefly in judicial opinions) as a generic term for any independent [[judge]] who is capable of issuing [[Warrant (law)|warrants]], reviewing [[arrest]]s, etc.<ref>[http://student.education2020.com/activities/vocab.aspx?keystr=13230&order=08020305&stbl=2196465 Education 2020 Homeschool Console]; Government course – Vocabulary, "usage" section for '''magistrate''': "''The term, magistrate, is often used for any independent judge who is capable of issuing warrants and reviewing arrests.''"</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://vwcommonpleas.org/admin.asp|title=Van Wer County Ohio Common Pleas Court General Division|website=vwcommonpleas.org}}</ref> When used in this way, it does not denote a judge with a particular office. Instead, it denotes (somewhat circularly) a judge or judicial officer who is capable of hearing and deciding a particular matter. That capability is defined by state [[statute]] or by [[common law]]. In [[Virginia]], for example, the Constitution of 1971 created the office of magistrate to replace the use in cities and counties of the [[justice of the peace]], which is common in many states for this function.

As noted above, the terms "magistrate" or "chief magistrate" were sometimes used in the early days of the republic to refer to the [[president of the United States]], as in President [[John Adams]]'s message to the [[U.S. Senate]] upon the death of [[George Washington]]: "His example is now complete, and it will teach wisdom and virtue to magistrates, citizens, and men, not only in the present age, but in future generations, as long as our history shall be read" (19 December 1799).

====Federal courts====
{{Main|United States magistrate judge}}
In the [[United States federal courts]], a '''magistrate judge''' is a judicial officer authorized by {{UnitedStatesCode|28|631}} ''[[wikt:et seq.|et seq.]]'' They were formerly known as U.S. commissioners, and then as magistrates. Magistrate judges, as they have been designated since 1990, are appointed by the federal [[United States district court|district judges]] of a particular court, serving terms of eight years if full-time, or four years if part-time, and may be reappointed. Magistrate judges conduct a wide range of judicial proceedings to expedite the disposition of the civil and criminal caseloads of the United States district courts. [[U.S. Congress|Congress]] set forth in the statute the powers and responsibilities that could be delegated by district court judges to magistrate judges. To achieve maximum flexibility in meeting the needs of each court, however, Congress left to the individual courts the actual determination of which duties to assign to magistrate judges.

====State courts====
{{Main|State court magistrate judge}}
In many [[State court (United States)|state court]] systems in the United States, magistrate courts are the successor to [[Justice of the Peace]] courts, and frequently have authority to handle the trials of civil cases up to a certain dollar amount at issue, applications for [[bail]], arrest and search warrants, and the adjudication of petty or misdemeanor criminal offences. In [[Ohio]], magistrates are subordinate to the judge or judges who appoint them, and all of their decisions are subject to the review, amendment, approval, or reversal by a judge. In some states, including [[West Virginia]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], magistrates are elected and not appointed.