Editing Papyrus (section)

== Manufacture and use ==
[[File: Men Splitting Papyrus, Tomb of Puyemre MET 30.4.10 EGDP012992.jpg|thumb|Men splitting papyrus, [[TT39|Tomb of Puyemré]]; Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
[[File: Papyrus sheet.svg|thumb|right|Different ways of cutting papyrus stem and making of papyrus sheet]]
[[File: Cyperus papyrus-pjt3.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Papyrus plants near [[Syracuse, Sicily]]]]
[[File: Dictionnaire pittoresque d'histoire naturelle et des phénomènes de la nature (1838) (14780745242).jpg|thumb|150px|alt=Drawing of a greater bird of paradise on papyrus|Drawing of a greater bird of paradise and the papyrus plant]]

Papyrus was made from the stem of the papyrus plant, ''[[Cyperus papyrus]]''. The outer rind was first removed, and the sticky fibrous inner [[pith]] is cut lengthwise into thin strips about {{convert|40|cm|0|abbr=on}} long. The strips were then placed side by side on a hard surface with their edges slightly overlapping, and then another layer of strips is laid on top at right angles. The strips may have been soaked in water long enough for [[decomposition]] to begin, perhaps increasing adhesion, but this is not certain. The two layers possibly were glued together.<ref>'' Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography'', Maunde Thompson. [https://archive.org/details/greeklatin00thomuoft archive. org]</ref> While still moist, the two layers were hammered together, mashing the layers into a single sheet. The sheet was then dried under pressure. After drying, the sheet was polished with a rounded object, possibly a stone, [[seashell]], or round hardwood.<ref>Bierbrier, Morris Leonard, ed. 1986. ''Papyrus: Structure and Usage''. British Museum Occasional Papers 60, ser. ed. Anne Marriott. London: British Museum Press.</ref>

Sheets, or Mollema, could be cut to fit the obligatory size or glued together to create a longer roll. The point where the Mollema are joined with glue is called the kollesis. A wooden stick would be attached to the last sheet in a roll, making it easier to handle.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lyons|first=Martyn|title=Books: A Living History|year=2011|publisher=Getty Publications|location=Los Angeles, California|isbn=978-1-60606-083-4|pages=21}}</ref> To form the long strip scrolls required, several such sheets were united and placed so all the horizontal fibres parallel with the roll's length were on one side and all the vertical fibres on the other. Normally, texts were first written on the ''[[recto]]'', the lines following the fibres, parallel to the long edges of the scroll. Secondarily, papyrus was often reused, writing across the fibres on the ''[[verso]]''.<ref name = Skeat/>

One source used for determining the method by which papyrus was created in antiquity is through the examination of tombs in the ancient Egyptian city of [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], which housed a [[necropolis]] containing many murals displaying the process of papyrus-making. The Roman commander [[Pliny the Elder]] also describes the methods of preparing papyrus in his ''[[Naturalis Historia]]''.{{r|metzger|p=5}}

In a dry [[climate]], like that of Egypt, papyrus is stable, formed as it is of highly rot-resistant [[cellulose]], but storage in humid conditions can result in [[Mold (fungus)|mold]]s attacking and destroying the material. Library papyrus rolls were stored in wooden boxes and chests made in the form of statues. Papyrus scrolls were organized according to subject or author and identified with clay labels that specified their contents without having to unroll the scroll.<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Stuart|title=The Library: An Illustrated History|year=2009|publisher=Skyhorse|location=New York, NY|isbn=9781602397064|pages=[https://archive.org/details/libraryillustrat0000murr/page/10 10–12]|url=https://archive.org/details/libraryillustrat0000murr/page/10}}</ref> In European conditions, papyrus seems to have lasted only a matter of decades; a 200-year-old papyrus was considered extraordinary. Imported papyrus once commonplace in [[Greece]] and [[Italy]] has since deteriorated beyond repair, but papyri are still being found in Egypt; extraordinary examples include the [[Elephantine papyri]] and the famous finds at [[Oxyrhynchus]] and [[Nag Hammadi]]. The [[Villa of the Papyri]] at [[Herculaneum]], containing the library of [[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (consul 58 BC)|Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus]], [[Julius Caesar]]'s father-in-law, was preserved by the eruption of [[Mount Vesuvius]] but has only been partially excavated.

Sporadic attempts to revive the manufacture of papyrus have been made since the mid-18th century. [[Scotland|Scottish]] explorer [[James Bruce]] experimented in the late 18th century with papyrus plants from [[Sudan]], for papyrus had become extinct in Egypt. Also in the 18th century, [[Sicily|Sicilian]] Saverio Landolina manufactured papyrus at [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], where papyrus plants had continued to grow in the wild.  During the 1920s, when Egyptologist [[Battiscombe Gunn]] lived in [[Maadi]], outside Cairo, he experimented with the manufacture of papyrus, growing the plant in his garden. He beat the sliced papyrus stalks between two layers of linen and produced successful examples of papyrus, one of which was exhibited in the [[Egyptian Museum]] in Cairo.<ref name=Cerny>{{cite book   | first = Jaroslav   | last = Cerny  | title = Paper and books in Ancient Egypt  | publisher = [[H. K. Lewis & Co. Ltd.]]  | location = London  | year = 1947}}</ref><ref name=Lucas>{{cite book  | first = A.  | last = Lucas  | title = Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 2nd Ed  | publisher = Edward Arnold and Co.  | location = London  | year = 1934}}</ref> The modern technique of papyrus production used in Egypt for the tourist trade was developed in 1962 by the Egyptian engineer Hassan Ragab using plants that had been reintroduced into Egypt in 1872 from France. Both Sicily and Egypt have centres of limited papyrus production.

Papyrus is still used by communities living in the vicinity of swamps, to the extent that rural householders derive up to 75% of their income from swamp goods.<ref name = maclean/> Particularly in East and Central Africa, people harvest papyrus, which is used to manufacture items that are sold or used locally. Examples include baskets, hats, fish traps, trays or winnowing mats, and floor mats.<ref>Langdon, S. 2000. ''Papyrus and its Uses in Modern Day Russia'', Vol. 1, pp.&nbsp;56–59.</ref> Papyrus is also used to make roofs, ceilings, rope, and fences. Although alternatives, such as [[eucalyptus]], are increasingly available, papyrus is still used as fuel.<ref name = maclean>Maclean, I.M.D., R. Tinch, M. Hassall, and R.R. Boar. 2003c. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ilya_Maclean/publication/256461329_Towards_Optimal_Use_of_Tropical_Wetlands_an_Economic_Valuation_of_Goods_Derived_from_Papyrus_Swamps_in_Southwest_Uganda/links/5b7ef87992851c1e122e5393/Towards-Optimal-Use-of-Tropical-Wetlands-an-Economic-Valuation-of-Goods-Derived-from-Papyrus-Swamps-in-Southwest-Uganda.pdf Towards optimal use of tropical wetlands: an economic evaluation of goods derived from papyrus swamps in southwest Uganda]." Environmental Change and Management Working Paper No. 2003-10, Centre for Social and Economic Research into the Global Environment, University of East Anglia, Norwich.</ref>