Editing Paul Robeson (section)

==Theatrical success and ideological transformation==

===1923–1927: Harlem Renaissance===
Robeson briefly worked as a lawyer, but he renounced a career in law because of [[racism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=111–114}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=54–55}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=71–72}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=29}}</ref> His wife supported them financially. She was the head [[histology|histological chemist]] in Surgical Pathology at [[Presbyterian Hospital (New York City)|New York-Presbyterian Hospital]]. She continued to work there until 1925 when his career took off.<ref name=pauljr>{{cite book | author=Paul Robeson Jr. |title=The Undiscovered Paul Robeson. An Artist's Journey 1898–1939. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=0-471-24265-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/undiscoveredpaul00robe/page/43 43–54] |url=https://archive.org/details/undiscoveredpaul00robe/page/43 |date=2001 }}</ref> They frequented the social functions at the future [[Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture|Schomburg Center]].<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=115}}; cf. [http://www.nypl.org/locations/schomburg/about/history History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112005157/http://www.nypl.org/locations/schomburg/about/history |date=January 12, 2012 }}, {{cite news |last1=Fraser |first1=C. Gerald |title=Schomburg Unit Listed as Landmark |id={{ProQuest|120941139}} |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1979/04/01/archives/schomburg-unit-listed-as-landmark-spawning-ground-of-talent-40.html |work=The New York Times |date=April 1, 1979 }}</ref> In December 1924 he landed the lead role of Jim in [[Eugene O'Neill]]'s ''[[All God's Chillun Got Wings (play)|All God's Chillun Got Wings]]'',<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=52–55}}; {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=111, 116–117}}; {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=73}}</ref> which culminated with Jim metaphorically consummating his marriage with his white wife by symbolically emasculating himself. ''Chillun's'' opening was postponed due to nationwide controversy over its plot.<ref>{{cite news|title=All God's Chillun|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,717940,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823233626/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,717940,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 23, 2007|quote=The dramatic [[miscegenation]] will shortly be enacted&nbsp;... [produced by the Provincetown Players, headed by O'Neill], dramatist; [[Robert Edmond Jones]], artist, and [[Kenneth Macgowan]], author. Many white people do not like the [plot]. Neither do many black.|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=March 17, 1924|access-date=July 19, 2007}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=57–59}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=118–121}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=32–33}}.</ref>

''Chillun's'' delay led to a revival of ''[[The Emperor Jones]]'' with Robeson as Brutus, a role pioneered by [[Charles Sidney Gilpin]].<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=73–76}}; cf. {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=36–37}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=53, 57–59, 61–62}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=90–91, 122–123}}</ref> The role terrified and galvanized Robeson, as it was practically a 90-minute soliloquy.{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=123}} Reviews declared him an unequivocal success.<ref>{{cite news|first=Will Anthony|last=Madden|title=Paul Robeson Rises To Supreme Heights In 'The Emperor Jones'|date=May 17, 1924|work=Pittsburgh Courier|page=8|id={{ProQuest|201849682}}}}; cf. {{cite news |last1=Corbin |first1=John |title=The Play; Jazzed Methodism |id={{ProQuest|103407566}} |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1924/05/07/archives/the-play-jazzed-methodism.html |work=The New York Times |date=May 7, 1924 |access-date=October 22, 2023 |archive-date=October 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027174330/https://www.nytimes.com/1924/05/07/archives/the-play-jazzed-methodism.html |url-status=live }}.{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=62–63}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=124–125}}.</ref> Though arguably clouded by its controversial subject, his Jim in ''Chillun'' was less well received.<ref>{{cite news|first=Stark|last=Young|title=The Prompt Book|date=August 24, 1924|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|page=X1|id={{ProQuest|103317885}}}}; {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|180569383}} |first1=Burns |last1=Mantle |title='All God's Chillun' Plays Without a Single Protest: O'Neill Makes Good Threat to Produce 'All God's Chillun' |newspaper=Chicago Daily Tribune |date=May 25, 1924 |page=F1 }}{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=126–127}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=64–65}}</ref> He answered criticism of its plot by writing that fate had drawn him to the "untrodden path" of drama, that the true measure of a culture is in its artistic contributions, and that the only true American culture was African-American.<ref>"And there is an ''Othello'' when I am ready.... One of the great measures of a people is its culture. Above all things, we boast that the only true artistic contributions of America are Negro in origin. We boast of the culture of ancient Africa. [I]n any discussion of art or culture, [one must include] music and the drama and its interpretation. So today Roland Hayes is infinitely more of a racial asset than many who 'talk' at great length. Thousands of people hear him, see him, are moved by him, and are brought to a clearer understanding of human values. If I can do something of a like nature, I shall be happy. My early experiences give me much hope." cf. {{harvnb|Wilson|2000|p=292}}.</ref>

The success of his acting placed him in elite social circles<ref>{{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=38–40}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=68–71, 76}}, {{harvnb|Sampson|2005|p=9}}</ref> and his rise to fame, which was forcefully aided by Essie,<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=142–143}}; cf. {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|201834383}} |title='I Owe My Success To My Wife,' Says Paul Robeson, Star In O'Neill's Drama: Tendered Informal Reception in New York – Newspapers Well Represented |newspaper=The Pittsburgh Courier |date=June 14, 1924 |page=13 }}</ref> had happened very rapidly.{{sfn|Robeson|2001|p=84}} Essie's ambition for Robeson was a startling dichotomy to his indifference.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=84}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=149, 152}}.</ref> She quit her job, became his agent, and negotiated his first movie role in a silent [[race film]] directed by [[Oscar Micheaux]], ''[[Body and Soul (1925 film)|Body and Soul]]'' (1925).<ref>{{harvnb|Nollen|2010|pp=14, 18–19}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=67}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=160}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=43}}</ref> To support a charity for single mothers, Robeson headlined a concert singing [[spirituals]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Robeson to Sing for Nursery Fund: Benefit to Be Given in Greenwich Village Theatre March 15|date=March 11, 1925|newspaper=[[New York Amsterdam News]]|page=9|id={{ProQuest|226378502}}}}</ref> He performed his repertoire of spirituals on the radio.<ref>{{cite news|first=Ulysses |last=Coates|title=Radio|date=April 18, 1925|work=Chicago Defender|page=A8|id={{ProQuest|492070128}}}}; cf. {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|226176207}} |title=Robeson to Sing Over Radio |newspaper=[[New York Amsterdam News]]|date=April 8, 1925 |page=2 }}</ref>

[[Lawrence Benjamin Brown]], who had become renowned while touring as a pianist with gospel singer [[Roland Hayes]], chanced upon Robeson in Harlem.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=78}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=139}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=85}}</ref> The two ad-libbed a set of spirituals, with Robeson as lead and Brown as accompanist. This so enthralled them that they booked [[Provincetown Playhouse]] for a concert.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=79}}; cf. {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=41–42}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=140}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=85–86}}</ref> The pair's rendition of African-American folk songs and spirituals was captivating,<ref>{{cite news|title=Clara Young Loses $75,000 in Jewels|date=April 20, 1925|work=The New York Times|page=21|id={{ProQuest|103557765}}}}; cf. {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|201840160}} |title=Paul Robeson, Lawrence Brown Score Big New York Success With Negro Songs |newspaper=The Pittsburgh Courier |date=May 2, 1925 |page=10 }}, {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|226457501}} |title=Music: Postal Carrier to Give Song Recital |newspaper=[[New York Amsterdam News]]|date=April 15, 1925 |page=9 }}{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=80–81}}.</ref> and [[Victor Talking Machine Company|Victor Records]] signed Robeson to a contract in September 1925.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=82, 86}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=149}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=93}}, {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|226389224}} |title=Robeson on Victor |newspaper=[[New York Amsterdam News]]|date=September 16, 1925 |page=6}}</ref>

The Robesons went to London for a revival of ''The Emperor Jones'', before spending the rest of the fall on holiday on the French Riviera, socializing with [[Gertrude Stein]] and [[Claude McKay]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=45–47}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=83, 88–98}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=161–167}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=95–97}}</ref> Robeson and Brown performed a series of concert tours in America from January 1926 until May 1927.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=169–184}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=98–106}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=47–49}}</ref>

During a hiatus in New York, Robeson learned that Essie was several months pregnant.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=106}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=184}}</ref> [[Paul Robeson Jr.]] was born in November 1927 in New York, while Robeson and Brown toured Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=143}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=106}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=184}}</ref> Essie experienced complications from the birth,<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=110}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=147}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=49}}</ref> and by mid-December, her health had deteriorated dramatically. Ignoring Essie's objections, her mother wired Robeson and he immediately returned to her bedside.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=186}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=112}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=148}}</ref> Essie completely recovered after a few months.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paul Robeson |url=https://www.tumblr.com/blackkudos/614854668036816896/paul-robeson |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=Tumblr |language=en-US}}</ref>

===1928–1932: ''Show Boat'', ''Othello'', and marriage difficulties===
In 1928, Robeson played "Joe" in the London production of the American musical ''[[Show Boat]]'', at the [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Drury Lane Theatre: 'Showboat'|date=May 4, 1928|newspaper=[[The Times]]|page=14|quote=Mr. Robeson's melancholy song about the 'old river' is one of the two chief hits of the evening.}}; {{cite web|title=Show Boat |publisher=theatrecrafts.com |url=https://www.theatrecrafts.com/pages/home/shows/showboat/}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=113–115}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=188–192}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=149–156}}</ref> His rendition of "[[Ol' Man River]]" became the benchmark for all future performers of the song.{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=192}} Some black critics objected to the play due to its usage of the then-common racial epithet "[[nigger]]".<ref>{{cite news|first=J A|last=Rogers|title='Show Boat' Pleasure-Disappointment": Rogers Gives New View Says Race Talent Is Submerged|date=October 6, 1928|work=Pittsburgh Courier|page=A2|quote=[Show Boat] is, so far as the Negro is concerned, a regrettable bit of American niggerism introduced into Europe.|id={{ProQuest|201884274}}}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=114|registration=yes}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=52}}.</ref> It was, nonetheless, immensely popular with white audiences.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mrs. Paul Robeson Majestic Passenger: Coming to Settle Business Affairs of Her Distinguished Husband|date=August 22, 1928 |newspaper=[[New York Amsterdam News]]|page=8|id={{ProQuest|226257877}} }}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=193–197}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=114}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=52}}.</ref> He was summoned for a [[Royal Command Performance]] at [[Buckingham Palace]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Sings For Prince Of Wales|date=July 28, 1928|work=Pittsburgh Courier |page=12|id={{ProQuest|201895989}}}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=115}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=196}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=153}}.</ref> and Robeson was befriended by [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Members of Parliament]] from the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]].<ref>{{cite news|title=English Parliament Honors Paul Robeson|date=December 1, 1928|work=Chicago Defender |page=A1|id={{ProQuest|492188338}}}}; cf. {{harvnb|Seton|1958|p=30}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=155}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=?}}</ref> ''Show Boat'' continued for 350 performances and, as of 2001, it remained the Royal's most profitable venture.{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=192}} The Robesons bought a home in [[Hampstead]].<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=205–07}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=153–156}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=52}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=118}}.</ref> He reflected on his life in his diary and wrote that it was all part of a "higher plan" and "God watches over me and guides me. He's with me and lets me fight my own battles and hopes I'll win."{{sfn|Duberman|1989|pp=126–127}} However, an incident at the [[Savoy Hotel#Restaurants|Savoy Grill]], in which he was refused seating, caused him to issue a press release describing the insult which subsequently became a matter of public debate.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|pp=123–124}}

Essie had learned early in their marriage that Robeson had extramarital affairs, but she tolerated them.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Writing Robeson|magazine=[[The Nation]]|date=December 28, 1988|first=Martin|last=Duberman|volume=267|issue=22|pages=33–38}}; cf. {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=57}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=159–160}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=100–101}}</ref> However, when she discovered that he was having another affair, she unfavorably altered the characterization of him in his biography,{{sfn|Robeson|2001|pp=163–165}} and defamed him by describing him with "negative racial stereotypes".<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=172–173}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=230–234}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=139–140}}</ref> Despite her uncovering of this tryst, there was no public evidence that their relationship had soured.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=143–144}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=165–166}}</ref>

The couple appeared in the experimental Swiss film ''[[Borderline (1930 film)|Borderline]]'' (1930).<ref>{{harvnb|Nollen|2010|p=24}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=129–130}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=221–23}}</ref> He then returned to the [[Savoy Theatre]], in London's [[West End theatre|West End]] to play ''Othello'', opposite [[Peggy Ashcroft]] as [[Desdemona]].<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=133–138}}; cf. {{harvnb|Nollen|2010|pp=59–60}}</ref> He cited the lack of a "racial problem" in London as significant in his decision to move to London.<ref>{{cite news |title=Paul Robeson Quits America for London |agency=Associated Press |publisher=San Bernardino Sun |date=May 14, 1931 |url=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a=d&d=SBS19310514.1.1&srpos=16&e=------193-en--20--1--txt-txIN-Michael+Maloney----1931--- |access-date=October 21, 2022 |archive-date=October 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021190803/https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a=d&d=SBS19310514.1.1&srpos=16&e=------193-en--20--1--txt-txIN-Michael+Maloney----1931--- |url-status=live }}</ref> Robeson was the first black actor to play [[Othello (character)|Othello]] in Britain since [[Ira Aldridge]].<ref>{{harvnb|Morrison|2011|p=114}}; cf. {{harvnb|Swindall|2010|p=23}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=166}}</ref> The production received mixed reviews which noted Robeson's "highly civilized quality [but lacking the] grand style".<ref>{{harvnb|Nollen|2010|p=29}}; cf. {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=60}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=226–229}}</ref> Robeson stated the best way to diminish the oppression African Americans faced was for his artistic work to be an example of what "men of my colour" could accomplish rather than to "be a propagandist and make speeches and write articles about what they call the Colour Question."<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=176–77}}; cf. {{harvnb|Nollen|2010|p=29}}</ref>

After Essie discovered Robeson had been having an affair with Ashcroft, she decided to seek a divorce and they split up.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=178–182}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=238–240, 257}}; cf. {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|pp=62–64}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=140–144}}</ref> While working in London, Robeson became one of the first artists to record at the new EMI Recording Studios (later known as [[Abbey Road Studios]]), recording four songs in September 1931, almost two months before the studio was officially opened.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Genius of Paul Robeson {{!}} As Told by Cameron Colbeck |url=http://www.abbeyroad.com/news/the-genius-of-paul-robeson-as-told-by-abbey-roads-cameron-colbeck-2938 |access-date=August 27, 2022 |website=Abbey Road |language=en-GB |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008024905/https://www.abbeyroad.com/news/the-genius-of-paul-robeson-as-told-by-abbey-roads-cameron-colbeck-2938 |url-status=live }}</ref> Robeson returned to Broadway as Joe in the 1932 revival of ''Show Boat'', with [[Maude Simmons]] and others, to critical and popular acclaim.<ref>{{cite news|first=Annie|last=Oakley|title=The Theatre and Its People|date=May 24, 1932|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=695EAAAAIBAJ&dq=robeson&pg=4621%2C562518|work=[[Windsor Star|Border Cities Star]]|page=4|access-date=May 29, 2020|archive-date=July 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728044549/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=695EAAAAIBAJ&dq=robeson&pg=4621%2C562518|url-status=live}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=253–254}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=161}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=192–193}}</ref> He received, with immense pride, an honorary master's degree from Rutgers.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=161}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=258–259}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=132, 194}}</ref> It is said that Foster Sanford, his college football coach advised him that divorcing Essie and marrying Ashcroft would do irreparable damage to his reputation.<ref>Sources are unclear on this point. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=145}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=182}}</ref> In any case, Ashcroft and Robeson's relationship ended in 1932,<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=162–163}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=262–263}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=194–196}}</ref> and Robeson and Essie reconciled, leaving their relationship scarred permanently.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=195–200}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=267–268}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=166}}</ref>

===1933–1937: Ideological awakening===
In 1933, Robeson played the role of Jim in the London production of ''Chillun'', virtually gratis,<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=271–274}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=167}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=204}}.</ref> then returned to the United States to star as Brutus in the film [[The Emperor Jones (1933 film)|''The Emperor Jones'']]{{snd}}the first film to feature an African American in a starring role, "a feat not repeated for more than two decades in the U.S."{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=269–271}}<ref name="ReferenceC">{{harvnb|Nollen|2010|pp=41–42}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=207}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=168–169}}</ref> His acting in ''The Emperor Jones'' was well received.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> On the film set he rejected any slight to his dignity, despite the widespread [[Jim Crow]] atmosphere in the United States.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=275–279}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=167–168}}</ref> Upon returning to England, he publicly criticized [[African Americans]]' rejection of [[African-American culture|their own culture]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Black Greatness|date=September 8, 1933|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Nv4-AAAAIBAJ&dq=paul%20robeson&pg=3427%2C2173739|work=[[Windsor Star|The Border Cities Star]]|page=4|access-date=May 29, 2020|archive-date=July 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728044655/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Nv4-AAAAIBAJ&dq=paul+robeson&pg=3427%2C2173739|url-status=live}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=284–285}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=169–170}}</ref> Despite negative reactions from the press, such as a ''[[New York Amsterdam News]]'' retort that Robeson had made a "jolly well [ass of himself]",{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=285–286}} he also announced that he would reject any offers to perform central European (though not Russian, which he considered "Asiatic") opera because the music had no connection to his heritage.{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=284–285}}

In early 1934, Robeson enrolled in the [[SOAS University of London|School of Oriental and African Studies]], a constituent college of the [[University of London]], where he studied [[phonetics]] and [[Swahili language|Swahili]].<ref>{{cite tweet |user=SOAS |number=1050025312770244609 |date=October 10, 2018 | title=Photograph of Paul Robeson's admission form for SOAS in 1934 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.soas.ac.uk/news/newsitem92596.html|title=Paul Robeson SOAS tribute with the late Tony Benn now available on YouTube {{!}} SOAS University of London|website=Soas.ac.uk|language=en|access-date=August 13, 2018|archive-date=February 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207151911/https://www.soas.ac.uk/news/newsitem92596.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> His "sudden interest" in [[History of Africa|African history]] and its influence on culture<ref>The rationale for Robeson's sudden interest in African history is viewed as inexplicable by one of his biographers and no biographers have stated an explanation for what Duberman terms a "sudden interest"; cf. {{harvnb|Cameron|1990|p=285}}</ref> coincided with his essay "I Want to be African", wherein he wrote of his desire to embrace his ancestry.{{sfn|Nollen|2010|p=52}}

[[File:Paul Robeson and Ágay Irén - London, 1934.tif|thumb|upright|Robeson and actress [[Irén Ágay]] on the set of ''[[Sanders of the River]]'', London, 1934]]
His friends in the [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] movement and his association with [[History of the socialist movement in the United Kingdom|British socialists]] led him to visit the [[Soviet Union]].{{sfn|Nollen|2010|p=52}} Robeson, Essie, and [[Marie Seton]] traveled to the Soviet Union on an invitation from [[Sergei Eisenstein]] in December 1934.{{sfn|Duberman|1989|pp=182–185}} A stopover in Berlin enlightened Robeson to the [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|racism]] in [[Nazi Germany]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Paul Robeson–Jackie Robinson Saga and a Political Collision|journal=Journal of Sport History|date=Summer 1979|first=Ronald A.|last=Smith|volume=6|issue=2}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=184–185, 628–629}}</ref> and, on his arrival in [[Moscow]], in the Soviet Union, Robeson said, "Here I am not a Negro but a human being for the first time in my life&nbsp;... I walk in full human dignity."<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|1978a|pp=94–96}}; cf. (Smith, Vern (January 15, 1935). "'I am at Home,' Says Robeson at Reception in Soviet Union", ''Daily Worker'').</ref>

He undertook the role of Bosambo in the movie ''[[Sanders of the River]]'' (1935),{{sfn|Nollen|2010|p=45}} which he felt would render a realistic view of [[colonial Africa]]n culture. ''Sanders of the River'' made Robeson an international movie star;{{sfn|Nollen|2010|pp=53–55}} but the stereotypical portrayal of a colonial African<ref>{{harvnb|Nollen|2010|p=53}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=78–82}}</ref> was seen as embarrassing to his stature as an artist<ref>{{cite journal|title=Sanders on the River|journal=Cinema Quarterly|date=Spring 1935|first=Paul|last=Rotha|volume=3|issue=3|pages=175–176|quote=You may, like me, feel embarrassed for Robeson. To portray on the public screen your own race as a smiling but cunning rogue, as clay in a woman's hands (especially when she is of the sophisticated American Brand), as toady to the white man is no small feat ... It is important to remember that the multitudes of this country [Britain] who see Africa in this film, are being encouraged to believe this fudge is real. It is a disturbing thought. To exploit the past is the historian's loss. To exploit the present means in this case, the disgrace of a Continent.}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=180–182}}; contra: {{cite news |title=Leicester Square Theatre: Sanders of the River |newspaper=The Times |page=12 |date=April 3, 1935 }}</ref> and damaging to his reputation.<ref>{{harvnb|Low|1985|p=257}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=181–182}}</ref> The Commissioner of Nigeria to London protested the film as slanderous to his country,{{sfn|Low|1985|pp=170–171}} and Robeson thereafter became more politically conscious in his choice of roles.<ref>Sources are unclear if Robeson unilaterally took the final product of the film as insulting or if his distaste was abetted by criticism of the film. {{harvnb|Nollen|2010|p=53}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=182}}</ref> He appeared in the play ''Stevedore'' at the [[Embassy Theatre (London)|Embassy Theatre]] in London in May 1935,<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=jl8Nu4IlqMMC|page=209}}|page=209|title=Stars: The Film Reader|last1=Fischer|first1=Lucy|last2=Landy|first2=Marcia|date=2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0415278928|language=en}}</ref> which was favorably reviewed in ''[[The Crisis]]'' by [[Nancy Cunard]], who concluded: "''Stevedore'' is extremely valuable in the racial{{snd}}social question{{snd}}it is straight from the shoulder".<ref>{{Cite magazine|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=CVgEAAAAMBAJ|page=238}}|magazine=The Crisis|volume=42|issue=8|first=Nancy|last=Cunard|date=August 1935|publisher=The Crisis Publishing Company, Inc.|language=en|title=Stevedore in London}}</ref> In early 1936, he decided to send his son to school in the Soviet Union to shield him from racist attitudes.{{sfn|Robeson|2001|pp=280–281}} He then played the role of [[Toussaint Louverture]] in the [[Toussaint Louverture: The Story of the Only Successful Slave Revolt in History|eponymous play]] by [[C. L. R. James]]{{sfn|James|Høgsbjerg|Dubois|2012}} at the [[Westminster Theatre]], and appeared in the films ''[[Song of Freedom]]'',<ref>{{IMDb title|0028282}}</ref> and ''[[Show Boat (1936 film)|Show Boat]]'' in 1936,<ref>{{IMDb title|0028249}}</ref> and ''My Song Goes Forth'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.villonfilms.com/filmrec.php?queryIndex=0|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010522014343/http://www.villonfilms.com/filmrec.php?queryIndex=0|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 22, 2001|title=Africa Sings|publisher=Villon Films|access-date=July 10, 2012}}</ref> ''[[King Solomon's Mines (1937 film)|King Solomon's Mines]]''.<ref>{{IMDb title|0029081}}</ref> and ''[[Big Fella]]'', all in 1937.<ref>{{IMDb title|0028629}}</ref> In 1938, he was named by American ''[[Motion Picture Herald]]'' as the 10th most popular star in British cinema.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article29211761|title=Most Popular Stars of 1937: Choice of British Public|newspaper=[[The Mercury (Hobart)|The Mercury (Hobart, Tas.: 1860–1954)]]|location=Hobart, Tas.|date=February 12, 1938|access-date=April 25, 2012|page=5|publisher=National Library of Australia|archive-date=July 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728044632/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/29211761|url-status=live}}; cf. {{harvnb|Richards|2001|p=18}}.</ref>

[[File:Einstein-Wallace-Robeson-Kingdon 300x236.jpg|thumb|right|Robeson at [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s home in Princeton, October 1947]]
In 1935, Robeson met [[Albert Einstein]] when Einstein came backstage after Robeson's concert at the [[McCarter Theatre]]. The two discovered that, as well as a mutual passion for music, they shared a hatred for [[fascism]]. The friendship between Robeson and Einstein lasted nearly twenty years, but was not well known or publicized.<ref>Jerome, F. (2004) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/430653 Einstein, Race, and the Myth of the Cultural Icon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124070217/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/430653 |date=January 24, 2023 }}. [[Isis (journal)|Isis]], vol. 95, no. 4 (December 2004), pp. 627–639. The University of Chicago Press.</ref>

===1937–1939: Spanish Civil War and political activism===
Robeson believed that the struggle against fascism during the [[Spanish Civil War]] was a turning point in his life and transformed him into a political activist.<ref>{{harvnb|Seton|1958|p=53}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|1981|p=38}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=220}}</ref> In 1937, he used his concert performances to advocate the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Republican]] cause and the war's refugees.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=292}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=375–378}}</ref> He permanently modified his renditions of "Ol' Man River" – initially, by singing the word "darkies" instead of "niggers"; later, by changing some of the stereotypical dialect in the lyrics to standard English and replacing the fatalistic last verse ("Ah gits weary / An' sick of tryin' / Ah'm tired of livin' / An skeered of dyin{{'"}}) with an uplifting verse of his own ("But I keep laffin' / Instead of cryin' / I must keep fightin' / Until I'm dyin{{'"}}) – transforming it from a tragic "song of resignation with a hint of protest implied" into a battle hymn of unwavering defiance.<ref>Glazer defines it as a change from a "lyric of defeat into a rallying cry". {{harvnb|Glazer|2007|p=167}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=293}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=381}}, {{harvnb|Lennox|2011|p=124}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|1981|p=37}}, {{harvnb|Hopkins|1998|p=313}}.</ref> His business agent expressed concern about his political involvement,{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=222}} but Robeson overruled him and decided that contemporary events trumped commercialism.<ref>"Paul Robeson at the Unity Theater", ''[[Daily Express]]'', June 20, 1938; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=222–223}}.</ref> In [[Wales]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agor.org.uk/cwm/themes/Life/international_relations/paul_robeson.asp|title=Paul Robeson|year=2002|work=Coalfield Web Materials|publisher=University of Wales Swansea<!-- Swansea University since 2007, UWS before that -->|access-date=March 3, 2006|archive-date=February 3, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060203181631/http://www.agor.org.uk/cwm/themes/Life/international_relations/paul_robeson.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> he commemorated the Welsh people killed while fighting for the Republicans,{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=396}} where he recorded a message that became his epitaph: "The artist must take sides. He must elect to fight for freedom or slavery. I have made my choice. I had no alternative."<ref>{{cite news|title=Spanish Relief Efforts: Albert Hall Meeting £1,000 Collected for Children|date=June 25, 1937|work=[[The Guardian|The Manchester Guardian]]|page=6|id={{ProQuest|484207378}}}}; cf. {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=77}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=372}}</ref>

After an invitation from [[J. B. S. Haldane]],{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=356}} he traveled to Spain in 1938 because he believed in the [[International Brigades]]'s cause,{{sfn|Wyden|1983|pp=433–434}} visited the hospital of [[Benicàssim]], singing to the wounded soldiers.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.comunitatvalenciana.com/rutas-culturales/2016/10/26/paulrobeson/|title=Paul Robeson|newspaper=Rutas Culturales|access-date=October 29, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030000718/http://blogs.comunitatvalenciana.com/rutas-culturales/2016/10/26/paulrobeson/|archive-date=October 30, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Robeson also visited the battlefront<ref>{{harvnb|Beevor|2006|p=356}}; cf. {{harvnb|Eby|2007|pp=279–280}}, {{harvnb|Landis|1967|pp=245–246}}</ref> and provided a morale boost to the Republicans at a time when their victory was unlikely.{{sfn|Wyden|1983|pp=433–434}} Back in England, he hosted [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] to support [[Indian independence movement|Indian independence]], whereat Nehru expounded on imperialism's affiliation with Fascism.<ref>{{cite news |id={{ProQuest|484443209}} |title=India's Struggle for Freedom : Mr. Nehru on Imperialism and Fascism |newspaper=The Manchester Guardian |date=June 28, 1938 |page=6 }}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=225}}</ref> Robeson reevaluated the direction of his career and decided to focus on the ordeals of "common people".<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=223}} {{harvnb|Nollen|2010|p=122}}</ref> He appeared in the pro-labor play ''Plant in the Sun'', in which he played an Irishman, his first "white" role.{{clarify|date=August 2017}}<ref>{{harvnb|Nollen|2010|p=122}}</ref> With [[Max Yergan]], and the [[Council on African Affairs|International Committee on African Affairs]] (later known as the [[Council on African Affairs]]), Robeson became an advocate for African nationalism and political independence.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=320}}; cf. {{harvnb|Von Eschen|2014|p=?}}</ref>

[[File:Paul Robeson - Birmingham Town Hall - 1939-03-07.jpg|thumb|upright| Robeson performs at [[Birmingham Town Hall]], England, on March 7, 1939, in aid of a local charity, the ''[[Birmingham Mail]]'' Christmas Tree Fund.<ref>{{cite news |title=Robeson's Return |work=Birmingham Mail |date=March 8, 1939 |page=10}}</ref> The advertised pianist was [[Lawrence Benjamin Brown|Lawrence Brown]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Priestley's Present Paul Robeson with Lawrence Brown at the piano |work=Birmingham Mail |date=February 20, 1939 |page=1}}</ref>]]

Paul Robeson was living in Britain until the start of the Second World War in 1939. His name was included in the ''[[The Black Book (list)|Sonderfahndungsliste G.B.]]'' as a target for arrest if Germany had occupied Britain.<ref>{{cite news | title=Nazi's black list discovered in Berlin | newspaper=[[The Manchester Guardian]]| via=Guardian Century – 1940–1949 | date=September 14, 1945 | url=https://www.theguardian.com/century/1940-1949/Story/0,6051,127730,00.html | access-date=June 22, 2021 | archive-date=October 1, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001002033/https://www.theguardian.com/century/1940-1949/Story/0,6051,127730,00.html | url-status=live }}</ref>