Editing Perception (section)

== Types of perception ==

=== Vision ===
{{main|Visual perception}}
[[File:Cerebrum lobes.png|thumb|400px|Cerebrum lobes]]
In many ways, vision is the primary human sense. Light is taken in through each eye and focused in a way which sorts it on the retina according to direction of origin. A dense surface of photosensitive cells, including rods, cones, and [[intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells]] captures information about the intensity, color, and position of incoming light. Some processing of texture and movement occurs within the neurons on the retina before the information is sent to the brain. In total, about 15 differing types of information are then forwarded to the brain proper via the optic nerve.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gollisch|first1=Tim|last2=Meister|first2=Markus|date=28 January 2010|title=Eye Smarter than Scientists Believed: Neural Computations in Circuits of the Retina|journal=Neuron|volume=65|issue=2|pages=150–164|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2009.12.009|pmc=3717333|pmid=20152123}}</ref>

The timing of perception of a visual event, at points along the visual circuit, have been measured. A sudden alteration of light at a spot in the environment first alters photoreceptor cells in the [[retina]], which send a signal to the [[retina bipolar cell]] layer which, in turn, can activate a retinal ganglion neuron cell. A retinal ganglion cell is a bridging neuron that connects visual retinal input to the visual processing centers within the central nervous system.<ref name="pmid34093409">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kim US, Mahroo OA, Mollon JD, Yu-Wai-Man P |title=Retinal Ganglion Cells-Diversity of Cell Types and Clinical Relevance |journal=Front Neurol |volume=12 |pages=661938 |date=2021 |pmid=34093409 |pmc=8175861 |doi=10.3389/fneur.2021.661938 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Light-altered neuron activation occurs within about 5–20 milliseconds in a rabbit retinal ganglion,<ref name="pmid9144251">{{cite journal |vauthors=Berry MJ, Warland DK, Meister M |title=The structure and precision of retinal spike trains |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=94 |issue=10 |pages=5411–6 |date=May 1997 |pmid=9144251 |pmc=24692 |doi=10.1073/pnas.94.10.5411 |bibcode=1997PNAS...94.5411B |doi-access=free }}</ref> although in a mouse retinal ganglion cell the initial spike takes between 40 and 240 milliseconds before the initial activation.<ref name="pmid31641196">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tengölics ÁJ, Szarka G, Ganczer A, Szabó-Meleg E, Nyitrai M, Kovács-Öller T, Völgyi B |title=Response Latency Tuning by Retinal Circuits Modulates Signal Efficiency |journal=Sci Rep |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=15110 |date=October 2019 |pmid=31641196 |pmc=6806000 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-51756-y |bibcode=2019NatSR...915110T}}</ref> The initial activation can be detected by an [[action potential]] spike, a sudden spike in neuron membrane electric voltage.

A perceptual visual event measured in humans was the presentation to individuals of an anomalous word. If these individuals are shown a sentence, presented as a sequence of single words on a computer screen, with a puzzling word out of place in the sequence, the perception of the puzzling word can register on an electroencephalogram (EEG). In an experiment, human readers wore an elastic cap with 64 embedded electrodes distributed over their scalp surface.<ref name="pmid23515395">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kim AE, Gilley PM |title=Neural mechanisms of rapid sensitivity to syntactic anomaly |journal=Front Psychol |volume=4 |pages=45 |date=2013 |pmid=23515395 |pmc=3600774 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00045 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Within 230 milliseconds of encountering the anomalous word, the human readers generated an event-related electrical potential alteration of their EEG at the left occipital-temporal channel, over the left occipital lobe and temporal lobe.

=== Sound ===
[[File:Anatomy of the Human Ear en.svg|right|thumb|Anatomy of the human ear. (The length of the auditory canal is exaggerated in this image.){{Anatomy of the human ear - color legend}}]]
[[Hearing]] (or ''audition'') is the ability to perceive [[sound]] by detecting [[vibration]]s (i.e., ''sonic'' detection). Frequencies capable of being heard by humans are called [[Audio frequency|''audio'' or ''audible'' ''frequencies'']], the range of which is typically considered to be between 20&nbsp;[[Hertz|Hz]] and 20,000&nbsp;Hz.<ref>{{cite web
| url=https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2003/ChrisDAmbrose.shtml
| title=Frequency range of human hearing
| first1=Christoper
| last1=D'Ambrose
| year=2003
| first2=Rizwan
| last2=Choudhary
| website=The Physics Factbook
| editor-last=Elert
| editor-first=Glenn
| accessdate=2022-01-22
}}</ref> Frequencies higher than audio are referred to as [[Ultrasound|''ultrasonic'']], while frequencies below audio are referred to as [[Infrasound|''infrasonic'']].

The [[auditory system]] includes the [[Ear|outer ears]], which collect and filter sound waves; the [[Ear|middle ear]], which transforms the sound pressure ([[impedance matching]]); and the [[Ear|inner ear]], which produces neural signals in response to the sound. By the ascending [[auditory pathway]] these are led to the [[primary auditory cortex]] within the [[temporal lobe]] of the human brain, from where the auditory information then goes to the [[cerebral cortex]] for further processing.

Sound does not usually come from a single source: in real situations, sounds from multiple sources and directions are [[mwod:superimpose|superimposed]] as they arrive at the ears. Hearing involves the computationally complex task of separating out sources of interest, identifying them and often estimating their distance and direction.<ref name="eop_constancy" />

=== Touch ===
{{main|Haptic perception}}The process of recognizing objects through touch is known as ''haptic perception''. It involves a combination of [[somatosensory]] perception of patterns on the skin surface (e.g., edges, curvature, and texture) and [[proprioception]] of hand position and conformation. People can rapidly and accurately identify three-dimensional objects by touch.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Klatzky|first1=R. L.|last2=Lederman|first2=S. J.|last3=Metzger|first3=V. A.|year=1985|title=Identifying objects by touch: An "expert system."|journal=Perception & Psychophysics|volume=37|issue=4|pages=299–302|doi=10.3758/BF03211351|pmid=4034346|doi-access=free}}</ref> This involves exploratory procedures, such as moving the fingers over the outer surface of the object or holding the entire object in the hand.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lederman|first1=S. J.|last2=Klatzky|first2=R. L.|year=1987|title=Hand movements: A window into haptic object recognition|journal=Cognitive Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=342–368|doi=10.1016/0010-0285(87)90008-9|pmid=3608405|s2cid=3157751}}</ref> Haptic perception relies on the forces experienced during touch.<ref name="Robles-de-la-torre2001">{{Cite journal|last1=Robles-de-la-torre|first1=Gabriel|last2=Hayward|first2=Vincent|year=2001|title=Force can overcome object geometry in the perception of shape through active touch|journal=Nature|volume=412|issue=6845|pages=445–448|doi=10.1038/35086588|pmid=11473320|bibcode=2001Natur.412..445R|s2cid=4413295}}</ref>

Professor [[James J. Gibson|Gibson]] defined the haptic system as "the sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body."<ref>{{cite book|title=The senses considered as perceptual systems.|url=https://archive.org/details/sensesconsidered00jame|url-access=registration|last=Gibson|first=J.J.|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|year=1966|isbn=978-0-313-23961-8|location=Boston}}</ref> Gibson and others emphasized the close link between body movement and haptic perception, where the latter is ''active exploration''.

The concept of haptic perception is related to the concept of [[extended physiological proprioception]] according to which, when using a tool such as a stick, perceptual experience is transparently transferred to the end of the tool.

=== Taste ===
{{main|Taste}}Taste (formally known as ''gustation'') is the ability to perceive the [[Flavor (taste)|flavor]] of substances, including, but not limited to, [[food]]. Humans receive tastes through sensory organs concentrated on the upper surface of the [[tongue]], called ''[[taste bud]]s'' or ''gustatory calyculi''<u>.</u><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNhFLnc6NRkC&pg=PA201 Human biology (Page 201/464)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102150409/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNhFLnc6NRkC&lpg=PA201|date=2 January 2017}} Daniel D. Chiras. Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2005.</ref> The human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on each of its roughly-ten thousand taste buds.<ref name="DeVereCalvert2010_39">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m6WOtX2QAtwC&pg=PA39|title=Navigating Smell and Taste Disorders|last1=DeVere|first1=Ronald|last2=Calvert|first2=Marjorie|date=31 August 2010|publisher=Demos Medical Publishing|isbn=978-1-932603-96-5|pages=39–40|access-date=26 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109163210/http://books.google.com/books?id=m6WOtX2QAtwC&pg=PA39|archive-date=9 November 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

Traditionally, there have been four primary tastes: [[sweetness]], [[Bitter (taste)#Bitter|bitterness]], [[sourness]], and [[saltiness]]. The recognition and awareness of [[umami]], which is considered the fifth primary taste, is a relatively recent development in [[Western cuisine]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.trendcentral.com/life/umami-dearest/|title=Umami Dearest: The mysterious fifth taste has officially infiltrated the food scene|date=23 February 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110418051954/http://www.trendcentral.com/life/umami-dearest/|archive-date=18 April 2011|publisher=trendcentral.com|access-date=26 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foodchannel.com/articles/article/8-food-trend-for-2010-i-want-my-umami/|title=#8 Food Trend for 2010: I Want My Umami|date=6 December 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711015658/http://www.foodchannel.com/articles/article/8-food-trend-for-2010-i-want-my-umami/|archive-date=11 July 2011|publisher=foodchannel.com}}</ref> Other tastes can be mimicked by combining these basic tastes,<ref name="DeVereCalvert2010_39" /><ref name="SiegelAlbers2006">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Af0IyHtGCMUC&pg=PA825|title=Basic neurochemistry: molecular, cellular, and medical aspects|last1=Siegel|first1=George J.|last2=Albers|first2=R. Wayne|publisher=Academic Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-12-088397-4|page=825|access-date=26 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109162711/http://books.google.com/books?id=Af0IyHtGCMUC&pg=PA825|archive-date=9 November 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> all of which contribute only partially to the sensation and [[Flavor (taste)|flavor]] of food in the mouth. Other factors include [[Odor|smell]], which is detected by the [[olfactory epithelium]] of the nose;<ref name="DeVereCalvert2010_332" /> [[Texture (food)|texture]], which is detected through a variety of [[mechanoreceptor]]s, muscle nerves, etc.;<ref name="SiegelAlbers2006" /><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=aJBIbvClWfcC&pg=PA4 Food texture: measurement and perception (page 3–4/311)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102091018/https://books.google.com/books?id=aJBIbvClWfcC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA4|date=2 January 2017}} Andrew J. Rosenthal. Springer, 1999.</ref> and temperature, which is detected by [[thermoreceptor]]s.<ref name="SiegelAlbers2006" /> All basic tastes are classified as either ''[[Reward system|appetitive]]'' or ''[[Aversives|aversive]]'', depending upon whether the things they sense are harmful or beneficial.<ref name="aa">[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=two-great-tastes-not-great-together Why do two great tastes sometimes not taste great together?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128175618/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=two-great-tastes-not-great-together|date=28 November 2011}} scientificamerican.com. Dr. Tim Jacob, Cardiff University. 22 May 2009.</ref>

=== Smell ===
{{main|Olfaction|l1 = Olfaction}}
Smell is the process of absorbing molecules through [[Olfactory system|olfactory organs]], which are absorbed by humans through the [[nose]]. These molecules diffuse through a thick layer of [[mucus]]; come into contact with one of thousands of [[Cilium|cilia]] that are projected from sensory neurons; and are then absorbed into a receptor (one of 347 or so).<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Science is perception: what can our sense of smell tell us about ourselves and the world around us?|journal = Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences|volume = 368|issue = 1924|pages = 3491–3502|last=Brookes|first=Jennifer|date=13 August 2010|pmc = 2944383|pmid = 20603363|doi = 10.1098/rsta.2010.0117|bibcode = 2010RSPTA.368.3491B}}</ref> It is this process that causes humans to understand the concept of smell from a physical standpoint.

Smell is also a very interactive sense as scientists have begun to observe that olfaction comes into contact with the other sense in unexpected ways.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.apa.org/monitor/2011/02/scents.aspx|title=Scents and sensibility|last=Weir|first=Kirsten|date=February 2011|website=American Psychological Association|access-date=11 December 2018}}</ref> It is also the most primal of the senses, as it is known to be the first indicator of safety or danger, therefore being the sense that drives the most basic of human survival skills. As such, it can be a catalyst for human behavior on a [[subconscious]] and [[instinct]]ive level.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bergland|first=Christopher|date=29 June 2015|title=Psychology Today|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-athletes-way/201506/how-does-scent-drive-human-behavior|journal=How Does Scent Drive Human Behavior?}}</ref>

=== Social ===
{{main|Social perception}}[[Social perception]] is the part of perception that allows people to understand the individuals and groups of their social world. Thus, it is an element of [[social cognition]].<ref>E. R. Smith, D. M. Mackie (2000). ''Social Psychology''. Psychology Press, 2nd ed., p. 20</ref>

==== Speech ====
{{main|Speech perception}}
[[File:Spectrogram_of_I_owe_you.png|right|thumb|Though the phrase "I owe you" can be heard as three distinct words, a [[spectrogram]] reveals no clear boundaries.]]
''Speech perception'' is the process by which [[spoken language]] is heard, interpreted and understood. Research in this field seeks to understand how human listeners recognize the sound of speech (or ''[[phonetics]]'') and use such information to understand spoken language.

Listeners manage to perceive words across a wide range of conditions, as the sound of a word can vary widely according to words that surround it and the [[tempo]] of the speech, as well as the physical characteristics, [[Accent (dialect)|accent]], [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], and mood of the speaker. [[Reverberation]], signifying the persistence of sound after the sound is produced, can also have a considerable impact on perception. Experiments have shown that people automatically compensate for this effect when hearing speech.<ref name="eop_constancy" /><ref name="Watkins2010">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ACkNL-G7gUUC&pg=PA440|title=The Neurophysiological Bases of Auditory Perception|last1=Watkins|first1=Anthony J.|last2=Raimond|first2=Andrew|last3=Makin|first3=Simon J.|date=23 March 2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4419-5685-9|editor-last=Lopez-Poveda|editor-first=Enrique A.|page=440|chapter=Room reflection and constancy in speech-like sounds: Within-band effects|access-date=26 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109163241/http://books.google.com/books?id=ACkNL-G7gUUC&pg=PA440|archive-date=9 November 2011|url-status=live|bibcode=2010nbap.book.....L}}</ref>

The process of perceiving speech begins at the level of the sound within the auditory signal and the process of [[Hearing (sense)|audition]]. The initial auditory signal is compared with visual information—primarily lip movement—to extract acoustic cues and phonetic information. It is possible other sensory modalities are integrated at this stage as well.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EwY15naRiFgC&q=%22Primacy+of+Multimodal+Speech+Perception%22&pg=PA51|title=The Handbook of Speech Perception|last=Rosenblum|first=Lawrence D.|editor1-last=Pisoni|editor1-first=David|page=51|chapter=Primacy of Multimodal Speech Perception|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75677-5|editor2-last=Remez|editor2-first=Robert}}</ref> This speech information can then be used for higher-level language processes, such as [[word recognition]].

Speech perception is not necessarily uni-directional. Higher-level language processes connected with [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[syntax]], and/or [[semantics]] may also interact with basic speech perception processes to aid in recognition of speech sounds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Matthew H. |last2=Johnsrude |first2=Ingrid S. |title=Hearing speech sounds: Top-down influences on the interface between audition and speech perception |journal=Hearing Research |date=July 2007 |volume=229 |issue=1–2 |pages=132–147 |doi=10.1016/j.heares.2007.01.014|pmid=17317056 |s2cid=12111361 }}</ref> It may be the case that it is not necessary (maybe not even possible) for a listener to recognize [[phoneme]]s before recognizing higher units, such as words. In an experiment, professor Richard M. Warren replaced one phoneme of a word with a cough-like sound. His subjects restored the missing speech sound perceptually without any difficulty. Moreover, they were not able to accurately identify which phoneme had even been disturbed.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Warren|first=R. M.|year=1970|title=Restoration of missing speech sounds|journal=Science|volume=167|issue=3917|pages=392–393|doi=10.1126/science.167.3917.392|pmid=5409744|bibcode=1970Sci...167..392W|s2cid=30356740}}</ref>

==== Faces ====
{{main|Face perception}}''Facial perception'' refers to cognitive processes specialized in handling [[human faces]] (including perceiving the identity of an individual) and facial expressions (such as emotional cues.){{Reference needed|date=March 2024}}

==== Social touch ====
{{main|Somatosensory system#Neural processing of social touch}}The ''somatosensory cortex'' is a part of the brain that receives and encodes sensory information from receptors of the entire body.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://human-memory.net/somatosensory-cortex/|title=Somatosensory Cortex|date=31 October 2019|website=The Human Memory|access-date=8 March 2020}}</ref>

[[Affective|Affective touch]] is a type of sensory information that elicits an emotional reaction and is usually social in nature. Such information is actually coded differently than other sensory information. Though the intensity of affective touch is still encoded in the primary somatosensory cortex, the feeling of pleasantness associated with affective touch is activated more in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]]. Increased [[Blood-oxygen-level-dependent imaging|blood oxygen level-dependent]] (BOLD) contrast imaging, identified during [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI), shows that signals in the anterior cingulate cortex, as well as the [[prefrontal cortex]], are highly correlated with pleasantness scores of affective touch. Inhibitory [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS) of the primary somatosensory cortex inhibits the perception of affective touch intensity, but not affective touch pleasantness. Therefore, the S1 is not directly involved in processing socially affective touch pleasantness, but still plays a role in discriminating touch location and intensity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Case|first1=LK|last2=Laubacher|first2=CM|last3=Olausson|first3=H|last4=Wang|first4=B|last5=Spagnolo|first5=PA|last6=Bushnell|first6=MC|title=Encoding of Touch Intensity But Not Pleasantness in Human Primary Somatosensory Cortex|journal=J Neurosci|volume=36|issue=21|pages=5850–60|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1130-15.2016|pmc=4879201|pmid=27225773|year=2016}}</ref>

=== Multi-modal perception ===
[[Multi-modal perception]] refers to concurrent stimulation in more than one sensory modality and the effect such has on the perception of events and objects in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/multi-modal-perception/|title=Multi-Modal Perception|website=Lumen Waymaker|page=Introduction to Psychology|access-date=8 March 2020}}</ref>

==== Time (chronoception) ====
{{main|time perception}}
[[Time perception|Chronoception]] refers to how the passage of [[time]] is perceived and experienced. Although the [[Time perception|sense of time]] is not associated with a specific [[sensory system]], the work of [[psychologist]]s and [[neuroscientist]]s indicates that human brains do have a system governing the perception of time,<ref name="Rao 2001">{{cite journal|vauthors=Rao SM, Mayer AR, Harrington DL|date=March 2001|title=The evolution of brain activation during temporal processing|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=4|issue=3|pages=317–23|doi=10.1038/85191|pmid=11224550|s2cid=3570715|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/80c4d02m }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unisci.com/stories/20011/0227013.htm|title=Brain Areas Critical To Human Time Sense Identified|date=2001-02-27|publisher=UniSci – Daily University Science News}}</ref> composed of a highly distributed system involving the [[cerebral cortex]], [[cerebellum]], and [[basal ganglia]]. One particular component of the brain, the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]], is responsible for the [[circadian rhythm]] (commonly known as one's "internal clock"), while other cell clusters appear to be capable of shorter-range timekeeping, known as an ''[[ultradian]] rhythm''.

One or more [[dopaminergic pathways]] in the [[central nervous system]] appear to have a strong modulatory influence on [[mental chronometry]], particularly [[Interval (time)|interval timing.]]<ref name="Amph-DA reaction time">{{cite journal|vauthors=Parker KL, Lamichhane D, Caetano MS, Narayanan NS|date=October 2013|title=Executive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease and timing deficits|journal=Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience|volume=7|pages=75|doi=10.3389/fnint.2013.00075|pmc=3813949|pmid=24198770|quote=Manipulations of dopaminergic signaling profoundly influence interval timing, leading to the hypothesis that dopamine influences internal pacemaker, or "clock", activity. For instance, amphetamine, which increases concentrations of dopamine at the synaptic cleft advances the start of responding during interval timing, whereas antagonists of D2 type dopamine receptors typically slow timing;... Depletion of dopamine in healthy volunteers impairs timing, while amphetamine releases synaptic dopamine and speeds up timing.|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Agency ====
{{main|Sense of agency}}

''Sense of agency'' refers to the subjective feeling of having chosen a particular action. Some conditions, such as [[schizophrenia]], can cause a loss of this sense, which may lead a person into delusions, such as feeling like a machine or like an outside source is controlling them. An opposite extreme can also occur, where people experience everything in their environment as though they had decided that it would happen.<ref>{{cite book|last=Metzinger|first=Thomas|title=The Ego Tunnel|publisher=Basic Books|year=2009|isbn=978-0-465-04567-9|pages=117–118}}</ref>

Even in non-[[Pathology|pathological]] cases, there is a measurable difference between the making of a decision and the feeling of agency. Through methods such as [[Neuroscience of free will#Libet experiment|the Libet experiment]], a gap of half a second or more can be detected from the time when there are detectable neurological signs of a decision having been made to the time when the subject actually becomes conscious of the decision.

There are also experiments in which an illusion of agency is induced in psychologically normal subjects. In 1999, psychologists [[Daniel Wegner|Wegner]] and Wheatley gave subjects instructions to move a mouse around a scene and point to an image about once every thirty seconds. However, a second person—acting as a test subject but actually a confederate—had their hand on the mouse at the same time, and controlled some of the movement. Experimenters were able to arrange for subjects to perceive certain "forced stops" as if they were their own choice.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Wegner DM, Wheatley T|date=July 1999|title=Apparent mental causation. Sources of the experience of will|journal=The American Psychologist|volume=54|issue=7|pages=480–92|citeseerx=10.1.1.188.8271|doi=10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.480|pmid=10424155}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Metzinger|first=Thomas|title=Being No One|date=2003|page=508}}</ref>

==== Familiarity ====

[[Recognition memory]] is sometimes divided into two functions by neuroscientists: ''familiarity'' and ''recollection''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mandler|year=1980|title=Recognizing: the judgement of prior occurrence|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/58b2c2fc|journal=Psychological Review|volume=87|issue=3|pages=252–271|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.87.3.252|s2cid=2166238 }}</ref> A strong sense of familiarity can occur without any recollection, for example in cases of [[deja vu]].

The [[temporal lobe]] (specifically the [[perirhinal cortex]]) responds differently to stimuli that feel novel compared to stimuli that feel familiar. [[Firing rate (cells)|Firing rates]] in the perirhinal cortex are connected with the sense of familiarity in humans and other mammals. In tests, stimulating this area at 10–15&nbsp;Hz caused animals to treat even novel images as familiar, and stimulation at 30–40&nbsp;Hz caused novel images to be partially treated as familiar.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ho JW, Poeta DL, Jacobson TK, Zolnik TA, Neske GT, Connors BW, Burwell RD|date=September 2015|title=Bidirectional Modulation of Recognition Memory|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=35|issue=39|pages=13323–35|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2278-15.2015|pmc=4588607|pmid=26424881}}</ref> In particular, stimulation at 30–40&nbsp;Hz led to animals looking at a familiar image for longer periods, as they would for an unfamiliar one, though it did not lead to the same exploration behavior normally associated with novelty.

Recent studies on [[lesion]]s in the area concluded that rats with a damaged perirhinal cortex were still more interested in exploring when novel objects were present, but seemed unable to tell novel objects from familiar ones—they examined both equally. Thus, other brain regions are involved with noticing unfamiliarity, while the perirhinal cortex is needed to associate the feeling with a specific source.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Kinnavane L, Amin E, Olarte-Sánchez CM, Aggleton JP|date=November 2016|title=Detecting and discriminating novel objects: The impact of perirhinal cortex disconnection on hippocampal activity patterns|journal=Hippocampus|volume=26|issue=11|pages=1393–1413|doi=10.1002/hipo.22615|pmc=5082501|pmid=27398938}}</ref>

==== Sexual stimulation ====
{{Main|Sexual stimulation}}

[[Sexual stimulation]] is any [[Stimulation|stimulus]] (including bodily contact) that leads to, enhances, and maintains [[sexual arousal]], possibly even leading to [[orgasm]]. Distinct from the general sense of [[#Touch|touch]], sexual stimulation is strongly tied to [[Hormone|hormonal activity]] and chemical triggers in the body. Although sexual arousal may arise without [[physical stimulation]], achieving orgasm usually requires physical sexual stimulation (stimulation of the Krause-Finger [[Bulboid corpuscle|corpuscles]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://abdominalkey.com/sensory-corpuscles/|title=Sensory Corpuscles|date=2017-03-29|work=Abdominal Key|access-date=2018-07-13|vauthors=Themes UF}}</ref> found in erogenous zones of the body.)

=== Other senses ===
{{main|Sense}}Other senses enable perception of [[Balance (ability)|body balance]] (vestibular sense<ref>{{Cite web |title=Your 8 Senses |url=https://sensoryhealth.org/basic/your-8-senses |access-date=2024-05-06 |website=sensoryhealth.org |language=en}}</ref>); [[acceleration]], including [[gravity]]; [[Proprioception|position of body parts]] (proprioception sense<ref name="3DVAE" />). They can also enable perception of internal senses (interoception sense<ref>{{Cite web |title=Your 8 Senses |url=https://sensoryhealth.org/basic/your-8-senses |access-date=2024-05-06 |website=sensoryhealth.org |language=en}}</ref>), such as temperature, pain, [[suffocation]], [[Gag Reflex|gag reflex]], [[abdominal distension]], fullness of [[rectum]] and [[urinary bladder]], and sensations felt in the [[throat]] and [[lung]]s.