Open main menu
Home
Random
Recent changes
Special pages
Community portal
Preferences
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Incubator escapee wiki
Search
User menu
Talk
Dark mode
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Editing
Persecution of Muslims
(section)
Warning:
You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you
log in
or
create an account
, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.
Anti-spam check. Do
not
fill this in!
===Mongol invasions=== {{main|Mongol invasions and conquests}} [[Genghis Khan]], and the later [[list of Yuan emperors|Yuan Emperors of China]] imposed restrictive decrees which forbade Islamic practices like [[halal]] butchering and forced Muslims to follow Mongol methods of butchering animals.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} As a result of these decrees, Muslims were forced to slaughter sheep in secret.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&q=yuan+dynasty+halal&pg=PA24 |title=China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement, and sects |first=Michael |last=Dillon |year=1999 |publisher=Curzon Press |location=Richmond |page=24 |isbn=978-0700710263 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> Genghis Khan referred to Muslims as "slaves", and he also commanded them to follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal one.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} [[Circumcision]] was also forbidden.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |title=The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims |author=Donald Daniel Leslie |year=1998 |page=12 |publisher=The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology |access-date=30 November 2010 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |archive-date=17 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&q=yuan+dynasty+halal&pg=PA230 |title=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road |first=Johan |last=Elverskog |year=2010 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |edition=illustrated |page=228 |isbn=978-0812242379 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> Toward the end of [[Yuan dynasty|their rule]], the corruption of the Mongol court and the persecution of Muslims became so severe that Muslim generals joined [[Han Chinese]] in rebelling against the Mongols. The [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] founder Zhu Yuanzhang employed Muslim generals like [[Lan Yu (general)|Lan Yu]] who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities were named "kamsia", which, in [[Hokkien]] Chinese, means "thank you"; many Hui Muslims claim that their communities were named "kamsia" because the Han Chinese appreciated the important role which they had played in assisting them to overthrow the Mongols.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kkJwAAAAMAAJ&q=popular+belief+mongols |title=Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic |first=Dru C. |last=Gladney |year=1991 |publisher=Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University |page=234 |edition=2, illustrated, reprint |isbn=978-0674594951 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> The Muslims in the [[Semu]] class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the [[Ispah Rebellion]] but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. {{Further|Battle of Baghdad (1258)|Mongol invasions of Syria}} [[File:Baghdad old Abbasid Minaret.jpg|175px|right|thumb|Minaret of Baghdad's [[al-Khulafa Mosque]] which was destroyed by the [[Mongol]] ruler [[Hulegu Khan|Hulagu]] during the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|1258 siege]]]] Following the brutal [[Mongol invasion of Central Asia]] under [[Genghis Khan]], and the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|sack of Baghdad]] which occurred in 1258, the [[Mongol Empire]]'s rule extended across most Muslim lands in [[Asia]]. The [[Abbasid caliphate]] was destroyed and the [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]] suffered much devastation, especially in [[Mesopotamia]], and [[Tengriism]] and Buddhism replaced it as the official religions of the empire.<ref name="Brown">Brown, Daniel W. (2003), ''New Introduction to Islam'', Blackwell Publishing, pp. 185–87, {{ISBN|0631216049}}</ref> However, the Mongols attacked people for goods and riches, not because of their religion. Later, many Mongol khans and rulers such as those of the [[Oljeitu]], the [[Ilkhanid]], and the [[Golden Horde]] became Muslims along with their subjects. The Mongols made no real effort to replace Islam with any other religion, they just had the desire to plunder goods from anyone who did not submit to their rule, which was characteristic of Mongol warfare.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} During the [[Yuan Dynasty]] which the Mongols founded in China, Muslim scientists were highly regarded and Muslim beliefs were also [[Islam during the Yuan dynasty|respected]]. Regarding the Mongol attacks, the Muslim historian, [[Ali ibn al-Athir|ibn al-Athir]] lamented: <blockquote>I shrank from giving a recital of these events on the account of their magnitude and abhorrence. Even now I come reluctant to the task, for who would deem it a light thing to sing the death song of Islam and the Muslims or find it easy to tell this tale? O that my mother had not given me birth!<ref>Arnold, Thomas Walker, ''The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith'', p. 186</ref></blockquote> The detailed atrocities during the sack of Baghdad include:{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} * The [[House of Wisdom|Grand Library of Baghdad]], which contained countless precious historical documents and books on subjects that ranged from [[medicine]] to [[astronomy]], was destroyed. Survivors said that the waters of the [[Tigris]] ran black with ink from the enormous quantities of books that were flung into the river. * Citizens attempted to flee, but they were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed them with abandon. Martin Sicker writes that close to 90,000 people may have died (Sicker 2000, p. 111){{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}. Other estimates go much higher. [[Wassaf]] claims that the loss of life was several hundred thousand. Ian Frazier of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' claims that estimates of the death toll range from 200,000 to one million.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Ian |last=Frazier |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/invaders-3 |title=Annals of history: Invaders: Destroying Baghdad |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=25 April 2005 |page=4}}</ref> * The Mongols looted and destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Grand buildings which had taken generations to build were burned to the ground. * The [[al-Musta'sim|caliph]] was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury was plundered. According to most accounts, the caliph was killed by trampling. The Mongols rolled the caliph up in a rug, and rode their horses over him, because they believed that the earth would be offended if it were ever touched by royal blood. All but one of his sons were killed, and the sole surviving son was sent to Mongolia. * [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]] had to move his camp upwind from the city, due to the stench of decay that emanated from its ruins. At the intervention of Hulagu's [[Nestorianism|Nestorian Christian]] wife, [[Dokuz Khatun]], the city's Christian inhabitants were spared.<ref>Maalouf, 243</ref><ref>Runciman, 306</ref> Hulagu offered the royal palace to the Nestorian [[Catholicos]] [[Mar Makikha]], and he also ordered that a cathedral should be built for him.<ref>[[Richard Foltz]], ''Religions of the Silk Road'', New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, p. 123</ref> Ultimately, the seventh ruler of the Ilkhanate, [[Mahmud Ghazan]], converted from [[Buddhism]] to Islam, and thus began the gradual decline of Tengrism and Buddhism in the region and its replacement by the renaissance of Islam. Later, three of the four principal Mongol khanates embraced Islam.<ref>''Encyclopedia Americana'', Grolier Incorporated, p. 680</ref> Muslim and Jewish paternal cousin marriage was banned by the Yuan dynasty which also forced Muslims to obey Mongol customs like levirate marriage.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=Donald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eCMVAAAAIAAJ&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA13 |title=The Survival of the Chinese Jews: The Jewish Community of Kaifeng |date=1972 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9004034137 |edition=illustrated |volume=10 van Tʾoung pao. Archives concernant l'histoire, les langues, la ǵeographie, l'ethnographie et les arts de l'Asie orientale. Monographie |location= |page=13 |quote=In the early years of the Mongols in China, Qubilai actually gave “ repeated orders that the levirate shall be obligatory for ... In addition, Muslims and Jews, specifically mentioned, are forbidden to marry paternal cousins .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Atwood |first=Christopher P. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVRjDAAAQBAJ&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA301 |title=The Middle Kingdom and the Dharma Wheel: Aspects of the Relationship between the Buddhist Saṃgha and the State in Chinese History |date=2016 |publisher=BRILL |others=Contributor Thomas Jülch |isbn=978-9004322585 |series=Sinica Leidensia |location= |page=301 |chapter=Buddhists as Natives: Changing Positions in the Religious Ecology of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty |quote=unclean practices by Indian Buddhist polemics against Islam in the Kālacakra Tantra.54 Tao Zongyi 陶宗儀, in his Nancun chuogenglu ... again whether Musulman or Juqud (Muslim or Jewish), from practicing patrilateral cousin marriage.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hCJNQPszu5sC&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA29 |first=Donald Daniel |last=Leslie |title=Youtai – Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China |date=2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3631575338 |editor1-last=Kupfer |editor1-first=Peter|volume=47|author-link= |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=29 |quote=Confucianism bans the marriage of paternal cousins, and even of persons of the same surname . ... I am not sure whether this prohibition could refer to Muslims or to Jews . 2.1.1 . Terms for Jews It is ... 22, 67, “ Mongols ”, p .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ICGMDgAAQBAJ&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA523 |title=The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion |date=2017 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300125337 |edition=unabridged |location= |page=523 |quote=Commanders: Tödökech, Hülegü's daughter, married first to Tenggiz Küregen of the Oyirat tribe, was later the wife ... 969 (DzhT, III, 14; CC, 337, omitting Taghai's name), her second husband is called the cousin of her first. |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Xu |first1=Xin | author1-link = Xu Xin (Judaic scholar) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GAAWkYBNu5sC&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA144 |title=The Jews of Kaifeng, China: History, Culture, and Religion |date=2003 |publisher= KTAV Publishing House|isbn=0881257915 |location= |page=144 |quote=Because both Jews and Muslims were called hui hui in the past, scholars unfamiliar with the term's origin mistakenly ... such as circumcision, ritual slaughter, and marriage between paternal cousins.38 RELATIONS WITH THE JESUITS AND ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Leslie |first2=Roman|last2= Malek |first1=Donald Daniel |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tj0rDwAAQBAJ&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA50 |title=From Kaifeng to Shanghai: Jews in China |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1351566292 |location= |page=50 |quote=In the Mongol Yuan period (1279-1368), Chinese historical sources mention Jews for the first time, recording that Jews and Muslims were forbidden to circumcise, slaughter ritually for food, or marry paternal cousins. |author-link= |chapter=Integration, Assimilation, and Survival of Minorities in China: The Case of the Kaifeng Jews}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Naiman |first=Nily |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYb-mYaWpMC&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA241 |title=Mongolia |date=2011 |publisher=Chipmunkapublishing ltd |isbn=978-1847476227 |location= |page=241 |quote=Cousin Bella is arriving tomorrow for Nayama's wedding, which will turn Arugul into a fire breathing dragon. ... We are not half-breeds we are multi-breeds, Jewish Muslim Buddhist Chinese Russians and god knows what else, a cocktail of ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bowering |first1=Gerhard |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA168 |title= The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |last2=Crone |first2=Patricia |last3=Kadi |first3=Wadad |last4=Mirza |first4=Mahan |last5=Stewart |first5=Devin J. |last6=Zaman |first6=Muhammad Qasim |date=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |others=Contributors Richard Bulliet, David Cook, Roxanne L. Euben, Khaled Fahmy, Frank Griffel, Bernard Haykel, Robert W. Hefner, Timur Kuran, Jane McAuliffe, Ebrahim Moosa |isbn=978-0691134840 |edition=illustrated |location= |page=168 |chapter=family |quote=The Prophet, exceptionally, was not paired with one of the anṣār but with his cousin 'Ali. ... endogamy became highly preferred, especially for females, and Islamic law confirms that a Muslim man may marry a Jewish or Christian woman, ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=Donald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGgYAQAAIAAJ&q=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims |title=Jews and Judaism in Traditional China: A Comprehensive Bibliography |date=1998 |publisher=Monumenta Serica Institute |isbn=3805004184 |edition=illustrated |volume=44 of Institut Monumenta Serica Sankt Augustin: Monumenta serica monograph series |location= |pages=41, 15 |quote=Yuan (Mongol) Sources The Yuanshi (YS, History of the Yuan Dynasty) and Yuandianzhang (YDZ, Laws and Statutes of the ... They also forbade marriage of paternal cousins by Jews and Muslims (1340) (and also of 'father's younger ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Blanc |first1=Charles Le |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2-k571kpOwC&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA183 |title=Chinese Ideas About Nature and Society: Studies in Honour of Derk Bodde |last2=Blader |first2=Susan |date=1987 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |isbn=962209189X |location= |page=183 |quote=forbade 'incestuous' marriages:23 'As of 1340, Ta—shih-man [Muslim mullahs], Hui-hui [other Muslims], and Jews will be prohibited from marrying paternal cousins.' 'In c.1340, foreigners are prohibited from marrying their father's ... |author-link=}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=May 2023}}
Edit summary
(Briefly describe your changes)
By publishing changes, you agree to the
Terms of Use
, and you irrevocably agree to release your contribution under the
CC BY-SA 4.0 License
and the
GFDL
. You agree that a hyperlink or URL is sufficient attribution under the Creative Commons license.
Cancel
Editing help
(opens in new window)