Editing Plautdietsch (section)

==Comparison with related languages==
Plautdietsch has a Low German base, and as such, it does not show the effects of the [[High German consonant shift]]. This distinguished the High German dialects from the Low German dialects and all other Germanic languages.<ref>Plautdietsch does have some loan words from High German which do have the High German sound shift and are acceptable words in the language, according to Herman Rempel's dictionary ''Kjenn Jie noch Plautdietsch?'', e.g. {{lang|pdt|Spruch}} "recitation" [http://www.mennolink.org/cgi-bin/dictcgi?ls1146].</ref> The basic distinctions between High German and Low German are:

===Effects of the High German consonant shift===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Standard High German
! Northern Low German
! Plautdietsch
! Pennsylvania German
! Yiddish
! Dutch
! English
|-
! rowspan="2" |High German {{lang|de|pf, f}} = Low German {{lang|nds|p}}
| {{lang|de|Pfeife}}
| {{lang|nds|Piep}}
| {{lang|pdt|Piep}}
| {{lang|pdc|Peif}}
| {{lang|yi|פֿערד}} {{Transliteration|yi|ferd}}, {{lang|yi|רער}} {{Transliteration|yi|rer}}, {{lang|yi|ליולקע}} {{Transliteration|yi|lyulke}}
| {{lang|nl|pijp}}
| pipe
|-
| {{lang|de|Apfel}}
| {{lang|nds|Appel}}
| {{lang|pdt|Aupel}}
| {{lang|pdc|Appel}}
| {{lang|yi|עפּל}} {{Transliteration|yi|epl}}
| {{lang|nl|appel}}
| apple
|-
! rowspan="4" |High German {{lang|de|z, s, ss, ß}} = Low German {{lang|nds|t}}
| {{lang|de|Zunge}}
| {{lang|nds|Tung}}
| {{lang|pdt|Tung}}
| {{lang|pdc|Zung}}
| {{lang|yi|צונג}} {{Transliteration|yi|tsung}}
| {{lang|nl|tong}}
| tongue
|-
| {{lang|de|was}}
| {{lang|nds|wat}}
| {{lang|pdt|waut}}
| {{lang|pdc|was}}
| {{lang|yi|וואָס}} {{Transliteration|yi|vos}}
| {{lang|nl|wat}}
| what
|-
| {{lang|de|essen}}
| {{lang|nds|eten}}
| {{lang|pdt|äte(n)}}
| {{lang|pdc|esse}}
| {{lang|yi|עסן}} {{Transliteration|yi|esn}}
| {{lang|nl|eten}}
| to eat
|-
| {{lang|de|Fuß}}
| {{lang|nds|Foot}}
| {{lang|pdt|Foot}}
| {{lang|pdc|Fuus}}
| {{lang|yi|פֿוס}} {{Transliteration|yi|fus}}
| {{lang|nl|voet}}
| foot
|-
! High German {{lang|de|ch}} = Low German {{lang|nds|k}}
| {{lang|de|machen}}
| {{lang|nds|maken}}
| {{lang|pdt|moake(n)}}
| {{lang|pdc|mache}}
| {{lang|yi|מאַכן}} {{Transliteration|yi|makhn}}
| {{lang|nl|maken}}
| to make
|-
! rowspan="2" |High German {{lang|de|t}} = Low German {{lang|nds|d}}
| {{lang|de|tun}}
| {{lang|nds|doon}}
| {{lang|pdt|doone(n)}}
| {{lang|pdc|duh}}
| {{lang|yi|טון}} {{Transliteration|yi|tun}}
| {{lang|nl|doen}}
| to do
|-
| {{lang|de|Teil}}
| {{lang|nds|Deel}}
| {{lang|pdt|Deel}}
| {{lang|pdc|Deel}}
| {{lang|yi|טײל}} {{Transliteration|yi|teyl}}
| {{lang|nl|deel}}
| part (compare "dole", "deal")
|-
! rowspan="2" |High German {{lang|de|b}} = Low German {{lang|nds|w, v, f}}
| {{lang|de|Leben}}
| {{lang|nds|Leven}}
| {{lang|pdt|Läwe(n)}}
| {{lang|pdc|Leewe}}
| {{lang|yi|לעבן}} {{Transliteration|yi|lebn}}, {{lang|yi|חיים}} {{Transliteration|yi|khaym}}
| {{lang|nl|leven}}
| life
|-
| {{lang|de|Korb}}
| {{lang|nds|Korf}}
| {{lang|pdt|Korf}}
| {{lang|pdc|Karb}}
| {{lang|yi|קאָרב}} {{Transliteration|yi|korb}}, {{lang|yi|קויש}} {{Transliteration|yi|koysh}}
| {{lang|nl|korf}}
| basket
|-
! English {{angbr|th}} = other Germanic languages {{lang|de|d}}
| {{lang|de|danken}}
| {{lang|nds|danken}}
| {{lang|pdt|danke(n)}}
| {{lang|pdc|danke}}
| {{lang|yi|דאַנקען}} {{Transliteration|yi|danken}}
| {{lang|nl|danken}}
| to thank
|}
Like [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[West Frisian language|Frisian]] and Low German, Plautdietsch only shows the mutation of {{angbr|th}} into {{angbr|d}}.

===Vowel shifts in various Germanic languages===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Original vowel sound
! Standard High German
! Northern Low German
! Plautdietsch
! Pennsylvania German
! Yiddish
! Dutch
! English
|-
! {{IPA link|iː}}
| {{lang|de|Wein}} {{IPA|[vaɪn]}}
| {{lang|nds|Wien}} {{IPAblink|viːn}}
| {{lang|pdt|Wien}} {{IPAblink|viːn}}
| {{lang|pdc|Wei}} {{IPA|[vaɪ]}}
| {{lang|yi|װײַן}} {{Transliteration|yi|vayn}} {{IPA|[vaɪn]}}
| {{lang|nl|wijn}} {{IPA|[ʋɛin]}}
| wine {{IPA|[waɪn]}}
|-
! {{IPA link|yː}}
| {{lang|de|Feuer}} {{IPA|[fɔʏɐ]}}
| {{lang|nds|Füür}} {{IPA|[fyːɐ]}}
| {{lang|pdt|Fia}} {{IPA|[fiːɐ]}}
| {{lang|pdc|Feier}} {{IPA|[faɪɐ]}}
| {{lang|yi|פֿײַער}} {{Transliteration|yi|fayer}} {{IPA|[fajɜr]}}
| {{lang|nl|vuur}} {{IPAblink|vyːr}}
| fire {{IPA|[faɪɚ]}}
|-
! {{IPA link|uː}}
| {{lang|de|Haus}} {{IPA|[haʊ̯s]}}
| {{lang|nds|Huus}} {{IPAblink|huːs}}
| {{lang|pdt|Hus}} {{IPAblink|huːs}} (Mol), {{IPAblink|hyːs}} (OCol)
| {{lang|pdc|Haus}} {{IPA|[haʊs]}}
| {{lang|yi|הויז}} {{Transliteration|yi|hoyz}}/''hauz'' {{IPA|[hɔɪz]}}/[haʊz]
| {{lang|nl|huis}} {{IPA|[ɦœʏ̯s]}}
| house {{IPA|[haʊs]}}
|}
As shown, while Dutch, English and German have experienced similar vowel shifts, Plautdietsch has only merged the old Germanic {{IPA|/yː/}} sound with {{IPA|/iː/}}, while long {{IPA|/uː/}} is retained in the Molotschna dialect. The Old Colony variety has fronted it to the now vacant {{IPA|/yː/}}.

===Unique developments===
Not only has Plautdietsch undergone vowel shift, various dialects of Plautdietsch have also had their own shifts.<ref>Burns, Roslyn. 2015. The Plautdietsch Vowel Shift Across Space and Time. ''Journal of Linguistic Geography'' 3.2: pp 72- 94.</ref>

====Vowel lowering====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Standard High German
! Northern Low German
! Plautdietsch
! Pennsylvania German
! Yiddish
! Dutch
! English
|-
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}} to {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
| Fisch, dünn
| Fisch, dünn
| Fesch, denn
| Fisch, dinn
| פֿיש, דין<br />fish, din
| vis, dun
| fish, thin
|-
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}} to {{IPA|/a/}}
| helfen, rennen
| hölpen, rennen
| halpe(n), rane(n)
| helfe, schpringe (from ''springen'')
| העלפֿן, לױפֿן<br />helfn, loyfn (from ''laufen'')
| helpen, rennen
| to help, to run
|-
| {{IPA|/ʊ/}} to {{IPA|/ɔ/}}<sup>1</sup>
| Luft, Brust
| Luft, Borst
| Loft, Brost
| Luft, Bruscht
| לופֿט, ברוסט<br />luft, brust
| lucht, borst
| air (Latinate root)/archaic loft, breast
|-
| {{IPA|/aː/}} to {{IPA|/au/}}
| Mann, Hand
| Mann, Hand
| Maun, Haunt
| Mann, Hand
| מאַן, האַנט<br />man, hant
| man, hand
| man, hand
|}

# This shift is still active, as some speakers {including a few from Hague} still retain the older pronunciation.{{Citation needed|reason=How do we know a sound change is still active and that this is not just a separate later innovation? Documents from Quiring 1928 show these changes, and to say that the change is still active means that this change has been active for 84 years.|date=August 2012}}

====Vowel unrounding====
{| class="wikitable"
|- {{IPA|/y/}}
!
! Standard High German
! Northern Low German
! Plautdietsch
! Pennsylvania German
! Yiddish
! Dutch
! English
|-
|
| grün, schön
| gröön, schöön
| jreen, scheen
| grie, schee
| גרין, שײן<br />grin, sheyn
| groen, mooi/schoon
| green, beautiful {compare archaic sheen}
|-
|  to ei {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
| Heu, rein
| Hau, rein
| Hei, rein
| Hoi, rei
| הײ, רײן<br />hey, reyn
| hooi, schoon/rein
| hay, clean
|-
| {{IPA|/œ/}} to e, a
| Götter
| Gödder
| Jetta
| Gedder
| געטער<br />geter
| goden
| gods
|}

====Diphthongization before g, k, ch [IPA x] and r, with possible loss of r====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Standard High German
! Northern Low German
! Plautdietsch
! Pennsylvania German
! Yiddish
! Dutch
! English
|-
| Herz
| Hart
| Hoat
| Hatz
| האַרץ<br />harts
| hart
| heart
|-
| machen
| maken
| moake(n)
| mache
| מאַכן<br />makhn
| maken
| make
|-
| fragen
| fragen
| froage(n)
| frooge
| פֿרעגן<br />fregn
| vragen
| ask (compare Old English frægn)
|-
| hoch
| hooch
| huach
| hoch
| הױך<br />hoykh
| hoog
| high
|-
| Horn, Hörner
| Hoorn, Höörn
| Huarn, Hieena
| Hann, Hanner
| האָרן, הערנער<br />horn, herner
| hoorn, hoorns
| horn, horns
|}
The deletion of r has been completed in most final positions, after front vowels and before alveolar consonants, but is still retained in the infinitive of verbs, after short vowels, and sometimes after back vowels as seen in the example Huarn, Hieena.

====Various other vowel equivalences====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Proto-Germanic
! Standard High German
! Northern Low German
! Plautdietsch
! Pennsylvania German
! Yiddish
! Dutch
! English
|-
| {{IPA|/a/}} = {{IPA|/o/}}
| *watraz, *fadar, *namōn
| Wasser, Vater, Name
| Water, Vader, Naam
| Wota, Voda, Nomen
| Wasser, Vadder, Naame
| װאַסער, פֿאָטער, נאָמען<br />vaser, foter, nomen
| water, vader, naam
| water, father, name
|-
| {{IPA|/ai/}} = ee {{IPA|[ɔɪ]}}
| *saiwalō, *ainaz, *twai
| Seele, eins, zwei
| Seel, een, twee
| Seel, eent, twee
| Seel, eens, zwee
| נשמה (זײל), אײן, צװײ<br />neshome (possibly zeyl), eyn, tsvey
| ziel, één, twee
| soul, one, two
|-
| {{IPA|/æ/, /ō/}} = oo {{IPA|[ɔʊ]}}<sup>1</sup>
| *raudas, *hōdaz
| rot, Hut
| root, Hoot
| root, Hoot
| rot, Hut
| רױט, הוט<br />royt, hut
| rood, hoed
| red, hood
|}

# {{IPA|/æ/}} shifted to {{IPA|/au/}} before voiced consonants.

====Palatalization====
All words with a {{IPA|/ɡ/}} or {{IPA|/k/}} preceding or following a front vowel ({{IPA|/e/}} or {{IPA|/i/}}, not counting [[schwa]]) have been shifted to {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/c/}} (the latter has been written as kj or tj), even if there is another consonant between the vowel and the consonant. An intervocalic {{IPA|/ɡ/}} is palatalized as the [[voiced palatal stop]] {{IPA|/ɟ/}}, written gj or dj. (A similar event occurred with English, but not as generalized). Where an {{IPA|/e/}} or {{IPA|/i/}} has been sunken to {{IPA|/a/}}, the palatalized sound is retained. Also where German has a palatalization (of the [[High German consonant shift|shifted]] {{IPA|/ç/}} consonant), Plautdietsch retains the palatalization (of {{IPA|/k/}}) even after lowering a front vowel.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Standard High German
! Northern Low German
! Plautdietsch
! Pennsylvania German
! Yiddish
! Dutch
! English
|-
| gestern
| gistern/güstern
| jistren
| geschder
| נעכטן<br />nekhtn
| gisteren
| yesterday
|-
| geben
| gäven/geven
| jäwen
| gewwe
| געבן<br />gebn
| geven
| give
|-
| Kirche
| Kark
| Kjoakj
| Kaerrich
| קירך<br />kirkh
| kerk
| church
|-
| Brücke
| Brügg, Brügge
| Brigj
| Brick
| בריק<br />brik
| brug
| bridge
|-
| Milch
| Melk
| Malkj
| Millich
| מילך<br />milkh
| melk
| milk
|-
| recht
| recht
| rajcht
| recht
| רעכט<br />rekht
| recht
| right
|}