Editing Pope Pius II (section)

==Papal policies and initiatives==
[[File:Pintoricchio 014.jpg|thumb|Pope Pius II depicted in a fresco, located in the "[[Siena Cathedral#Piccolomini Library|Piccolomini library]]" in Siena, painted by [[Pinturicchio]] {{circa|1507}}.]]
From the first day of his papacy, Pius' greatest priority was freeing Europe from the threat of the Turks, through a great crusade.<ref>Pastor, pp. 19-20. Gregorovius, p. 170.</ref> He had also been preparing a bull, which in the event he never published, outlining his plans for a reform of the Roman Curia.<ref>Pastor III, pp. 397-403.</ref>

===Congress at Mantua===
After allying himself with [[Ferdinand_I_of_Naples|Ferdinand]] (Ferrante), the [[Aragon]]ese claimant to the throne of Naples, in opposition to the French House of Anjou,<ref>Ferrante's natural daughter was to marry Pius' nephew Antonio. Pastor, pp. 20, 27-28. Creighton (1902), [https://books.google.com/books?id=IlJLAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA87 ''Historical Essays and Reviews''], pp. 87-88.</ref> his next important act was to convene a congress of the representatives of Christian princes at [[Mantua]] for joint action against the [[Ottoman Turks|Turks]]. In anticipation of his departure for Mantua, Pius issued the bull "Cum Concedente Deo"  on 5 January 1459, in which he considered the possibility of the pope dying outside Rome; he ordered that the conclave to elect his successor should take place only in Rome, contrary to previous practice.<ref>Pastor III, p. 29. Cesare Baronio, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=d1dAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA178 Annales ecclesiastici]: A. D. 1-1571 denuo excusi et ad nostra usque tempora perducti ab Augustino Theiner,'' {{in lang|la}}, Volume 29 (Bar-le-Duc: Typis et sumptibus Ludovici Guerin, 1876), pp. 178-179, no. 1.</ref> On 11 January 1459 Pope Pius appointed Cardinal [[Nicholas of Cusa]] Vicar-General of the city of Rome and of the Patrimony of S. Peter; and on 15 January he named Bishop Galeazzo Cavrini of Mantua his Governor of Rome.<ref>Pastor III, p. 30.</ref> He finally set out for the north on 22 January.<ref>Pastor, p. 47.</ref>

While at Mantua, he undertook to mediate in the dispute between [[Sigismund, Archduke of Austria|Sigismund of Austria]] and Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa over the bishopric of Brixen, which had been given Nicholas by [[Pope Nicholas V]] in 1450, without the consent of the emperor, the count of Tyrol (Sigismund), or the cathedral chapter of Brixen. A public reconciliation was arranged, but no resolution of the basic problem was achieved, but rather postponed to a Diet to be held at Trent two years in the future. Sigismund, who had not been friendly toward the papacy for some years, left Mantua on 29 November 1459, even more irritated than before. Pius' efforts had failed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Creighton | title= A History of the Papacy during the period of the Reformation| date= 21 March 1882|volume= II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PfdJAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA393}}, pp. 393-396.</ref> Both returned to the north, and in April 1460 trouble broke out again. Cusa, who was at Bruneck and engaged in negotiations with Sigismund, was surrounded, captured by the archduke, and forced to agree to Sigismund's demands. Cusa appealed to Pius II. A restrained Pius only summoned Sigismund to appear before him and explain his conduct, but Sigismund appealed to a future council in a statement handed the pope by his proctor on 4 August 1460. On 8 August, Sigismund was excommunicated and his domains were placed under the interdict.<ref>{{cite book|last=Creighton | title= A History of the Papacy during the period of the Reformation| date= 21 March 1882|volume= II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PfdJAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA412}}, pp. 412-413.</ref>

On 26 September 1459, he called for a new crusade against the Ottomans, and on 14 January 1460, he proclaimed the official crusade that was to last for three years. The pope influenced [[Vlad III Dracula]], whom he held in high regard, to start a war against Sultan [[Mehmed II]] of [[Turkey]].<ref>Raymond T. McNally, Radu R Florescu, ''Dracula: Prince of many faces – His life and his times'' (Boston: Little Brown 1989; New York: Hachette+ORM, 2009), p. 129.</ref> This conflict at its peak involved the [[Wallachia]]ns trying to assassinate the Sultan (see [[The Night Attack]]).

After his departure from Mantua on 19 January 1460, Pius II reached his former bishopric of Siena on 30 January,<ref>Eubel II, p. 32, nos. 198, 199.</ref> where, exhausted by his exertions at Mantua, he was advised by his doctors to rest, either in the city or at the Petriolo hot springs.<ref>Pastor III, pp. 99-100, 396.</ref> There he was joined by his recent host in Mantua, [[Ludovico III of Gonzaga|Ludovico Gonzaga]]. Pius described his delight with country life in very pleasing language.<ref>Passages such as those and others where he marvels at landscapes and other natural beauties, or stories about his dog Musetta, were to be expurged from the first edition of his Commentaries, published in 1584, as embarrassingly unfitting, coming from the pen of a pope. ''Mémoires d'un Pape de la Renaissance. Les Commentarii de Pie II'', p. 8.</ref>

===New cardinals===
At the same time, since he had long been concerned with the content of the College of Cardinals and with the behavior of some of its members, The French faction among the cardinals, especially d'Estouteville and [[Alain de Coëtivy]], obstructed every move that might harm King [[Louis XI]], who was hostile to the idea of a crusade.<ref>Pastor III, pp. 17, 62.</ref> Two cardinals had died six months previously, [[Antonio Cerdà i Lloscos|Antonio de la Cerda y Lloscos]] and the Infante [[James of Portugal|Jaime of Portugal]].<ref>Pastor, p. 293.</ref> Some of the Italian cardinals, led by the Patriarch of Aquileia, [[Ludovico Trevisan|Lodovico Scampi]], were hostile to him personally and skeptical of his project.<ref>Pastor, p. 62.</ref> Pius decided to hold a consistory for the creation of new cardinals. Suggestions poured in from all sides, petitioning for at least ten new cardinals. During Lent of 1460, he began consultations with the current cardinals, whose consent was necessary.<ref>Pius II, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0DI8AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA176 ''Commentarii rerum memorabilium'' (1584)], p. 176: "Tum preces multorum porrectæ funt: Imperator unum efflagitauit, cui Pontifex cupide annuebat: Rex Franciæ duos: unum rex Aragonum: Ferdinandus rex Siciliæ,& Franciscus Mediolanensis dux plures: dux Sabaudiæ unum: dux Burgundiæ unum: marchio Montis ferrati unum: Florentini & Cosmas unum." Meserve and Simonetta II, pp. 225-231. Pastor III, p. 293.</ref>

On 4 March 1460, the Wednesday of [[Ember Days]], a formal consistory was held to make the final decisions on the candidates.<ref>Pius II, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0DI8AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA176 ''Commentarii'' (1584)], p. 177.</ref> Pope Pius' opening address was frank and detailed in cataloguing the shortcomings and faults of the luxurious lifestyle of the cardinals, and their activities on behalf of monarchs rather than the church: "Your lifestyle is such that you would appear to have been chosen, not to govern the state, but called to enjoy pleasures. You avoid neither hunting, nor games, nor the company of women. You put together parties that are more opulent than is fitting. You wear clothes that are far too expensive. You overflow with gold and silver.... We can't keep people from making requests, but we can easily refuse to entertain them. Think about who are appropriate, and I will choose from among their number...."<ref>Pius II, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0DI8AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA177 ''Commentarii rerum memorabilium'' (1584)], p. 177.</ref> He then gave the names of those who nominated themselves, or who had been nominated by others."  When he finished, Cardinal Scarampi rose to speak. He remarked that Pius' predecessors had named nobles, eminent for learning and holy life. But he was proposing people whom Scarampi would not employ in his kitchen or in his stables. In fact, according to the cardinal, there was no need for new cardinals: "With too many of us, our value declines."<ref>"Vilescunt omnia numerositate." Cugnoni, [https://books.google.com/books?id=DIP5NJwbx8kC&pg=PA199 Aeneae Silvii Piccolomini Senensis... Opera inedita], p. 199. Meserve and Simonetta II, pp. 228-231.</ref>

Finally, Pius was able to secure a positive vote on five names, and he was able to pressure the cardinals into accepting his own nomination of a sixth. These were: [[Angelo Capranica]], bishop of Rieti and brother of Cardinal [[Domenico Capranica]]; [[Bernardo Eroli]], bishop of Spoleto; [[Niccolò Fortiguerra]], bishop of Teano; [[Alessandro Oliva]] de Saxoferrato, the [[Superior general (Christianity)|Prior General]] of the [[Order of Hermits of Saint Augustine]] (the pope's choice, whose candidacy was much resisted); Pius' nephew [[Pope Pius III|Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini]], a [[protonotary apostolic]]; and [[Burkhard von Weisbriach]], archbishop of Salzburg. The appointment of Weisbriach was not made public until 31 May 1462, to avoid offending the foreign powers. The five cardinals whose names were published were all Italians.<ref>Eubel II, p. 13. Pastor, pp. 294-297.</ref> On 7 March 1460, Pope Pius had to write to the Duke of Burgundy, [[Philip the Good]],<ref>Duke Philip was the only ruler who had actually offered concrete aid at Mantua. Creighton (1902), [https://books.google.com/books?id=IlJLAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA90 ''Historical Essays and Reviews''], p. 90.</ref> apologizing for having been unable to convince the cardinals to vote for the duke's almoner, Jean Jouffroy, bishop of Arras. He wrote that it was because the cardinals would have no [[Ultramontanism|ultramontanes]] as cardinals.<ref>Pastor III, p. 396.</ref>

Pius was recalled to Rome, reaching the city on 6 October 1460. His presence was urged by the disturbances occasioned by [[Tiburzio di Maso]], who, when captured, confessed that he had planned to overthrow the papal government and plunder the cardinals and merchants. He was executed on 31 October.<ref>Pastor III, pp. 110-112.</ref>

The European powers, however, had not ceased their pressure for the appointment of more cardinals. The cardinals, however, were insistent that there should be no creation of non-Italians. An agreement was finally reached that there would be six new cardinals, three Italians and three "ultramontani", thereby preserving the balance of power. On 18 December 1461, six cardinals were announced: [[Bartolomeo Roverella]], archbishop of Ravenna; [[Jacopo Piccolomini-Ammannati]], bishop of Pavia; [[Francesco Gonzaga (1444–1483)|Francesco Gonzaga]], who was only 17; [[Jean Jouffroy]], the nomination of Louis XI<ref>Pastor III, p. 137.</ref> and Philip the Good; [[Louis d'Albret]], son of the Count of Dreux; and [[Jaume Cardona]], bishop of Urgel. The name of Burkhard von Weisbriach of Salzburg was also finally published.<ref>Eubel II, pp. 13-14. Pastor III, pp. 297-300.</ref>

===Naples, Rimini, Poland===
In the struggle for the [[Kingdom of Naples]] between the supporters of the [[House of Trastámara|House of Aragon]] and the [[House of Valois-Anjou|House of Anjou]], the [[Papal States]] were at this time troubled by rebellious barons and marauding [[condottieri]], whom he gradually, though momentarily, quelled. The Neapolitan War was also concluded by the success of the Pope's ally the Aragonese Ferdinand.<ref>{{cite book|last=Creighton | title= A History of the Papacy during the period of the Reformation| date= 21 March 1882|volume= II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PfdJAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA371}}, pp. 371-372.</ref>

In particular, the Pope engaged for most of his reign in what looked like a personal war against [[Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta]], Lord of [[Rimini]], with the result of the almost complete submission of that condottiero.

Pius II also tried mediation in the [[Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)|Thirteen Years' War]] of 1454–66 between [[Poland]] and the [[Teutonic Knights]], but, when he failed to achieve success, cast an [[anathema]] over Polish and Prussians both.

Pius II was also engaged in a series of disputes with [[King George of Bohemia]] and [[Sigismund, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Sigismund of Austria]] (who was excommunicated for having arrested [[Nicholas of Cusa]], [[Bishop of Brixen]]).<ref>Pastor III, pp. 213-239.</ref>

In June 1461, Pius II canonized Saint [[Catherine of Siena]].<ref>Tomassetti, pp. 159-165. The bull is wrongly dated 29 April 1461. It was 29 June, the feast of Ss. Peter and Paul. Pastor III, pp. 290-293.</ref>

In October 1461, he gained what at first appeared to be a brilliant success by inducing the new king of France, [[Louis XI]], to abolish the [[Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges]], by which the papal authority in France had been weakened. But Louis XI had expected that Pius II would in return espouse the French cause in [[Naples]], and when he found himself disappointed he virtually re-established the Pragmatic Sanction by royal ordinances. Pius II built a fortress in [[Tivoli, Lazio|Tivoli]] called [[Rocca Pia#Castle Rocca Pia|Rocca Pia]] in 1461.<ref>Pastor III, pp. 137-141.</ref>

The [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Ljubljana|Diocese of Ljubljana]] was established on 6 December 1461 by [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]].<ref>Joseph Chmel, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Vz8AAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA391 ''Regesta chronologico-diplomatica Friderici IV., Romanorum regis (Imperatoris III): Vom Jahre 1440 bis März 1452,''] Volume 1 (Rohrmann, 1838), p. 391, no. 3911. Marian Fidler, [https://books.google.com/books?id=YJ5bAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA301 ''Geschichte der ganzen österreichischen, weltlichen und klösterlichen Klerisey beyderley Geschlechts ... Aus den Sammlungen ... Josephs Wendt von Wendtenthal (etc.): Das Erzherzogthum Oesterreich Ob der Enns,''] {{in lang|de|la}} Part 4, volume 7 (Wien: Ghelen, 1786), pp. 301-312.</ref> On 9 September 1462, Pope Pius confirmed the action.<ref>Eubel II, p. 171, note 1.</ref>

===Crusade===
The crusade for which the Congress of Mantua had been convoked made no progress. In November 1463, Pope Pius II tried to organize the crusade against the Ottomans, similar to what Nicholas V and Calixtus III had tried to do before him. Pius II invited all the Christian nobility to join, and the Venetians immediately answered the appeal. So did George Kastriot Skanderbeg the leader of Albanian resistance, who on 27 November 1463 declared war on the Ottomans and attacked their forces near Ohrid. Pius II's planned crusade envisioned assembling 20,000 soldiers in Taranto, and another 20,000 would be gathered by Skanderbeg. They would have been marshaled in Durazzo under Skanderbeg's leadership and would have formed the central front against the Ottomans. The Pope did his best: he addressed an eloquent letter to the Ottoman ruler, [[Mehmet II]], urging him to become a Christian.<ref>N. Bisaha, "Pius II's letter to Sultan Mehmed II: A Re-examination," in: ''Crusades'' vol. 1 (Routledge 2002), pp. 183-201; ISSN: 1476-5276.</ref> The pope even suggested that if Mehmed were to convert, he would be recognized as "Emperor of the Greeks and of the East."<ref>Pastor III, p. 256.</ref> However, there are historians who believe that the mentioned letter was sent to the Sublime Porte.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ntv.com.tr/turkiye/inalcik-fatihi-hiristiyan-yapmak-istedi,bYvo7OTi7E6JUjD0M-cWdw|title=İnalcık: Fatih'i Hıristiyan yapmak istedi|date=14 November 2009|work=NTV}} {{better source needed|date=December 2023}}</ref> Not surprisingly, if it was delivered, the invitation was not successful.<ref>Chloë Houston, [https://books.google.com/books?id=EI0IJhyjNo8C&pg=PA99 "The Prospect of Conversion in Safayid Iran,"] in: Lieke Stelling, Harald Hendrix, Todd Richardson (edd), ''The Turn of the Soul: Representations of Religious Conversion in Early Modern Art and Literature,'' Boston-Leiden: Brill 2012, pp. 85-108, at pp. 99-100.</ref> In April 1462, a public pageant was staged for the pope to receive the relics of the head of [[Saint Andrew]] when it was brought from Patras in the Peloponnese to Rome by Thomas Palaeologus.<ref>Gregorovius, [https://books.google.com/books?id=P1MZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA205 ''History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages'']. Volume 7, Part 1, pp. 205-209.</ref>

Pius II succeeded in reconciling the Emperor and the King of Hungary,<ref>{{cite book|last=Creighton | title= A History of the Papacy during the period of the Reformation| date= 21 March 1882|volume= II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PfdJAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA457}}, pp. 457-458.</ref> and derived great encouragement as well as pecuniary advantage from the discovery of mines of [[alum]] in the papal territory at [[Tolfa]], c. 1459.<ref>Raymond De Roover. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3ptzaUifK2AC&pg=PA153 ''The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank, 1397-1494,''] (Washington DC: Beard Books, 1999), p. 153.</ref> However, France was estranged; the [[Duke of Burgundy]] broke his positive promises; [[Milan]] was engrossed with the attempt to seize [[Genoa]]; Florence cynically advised the Pope to let the Turks and the [[Venice|Venetians]] wear each other out. Pius II was aware that he was nearing his end, and his malady probably prompted the feverish impatience with which, on 18 June 1464, he assumed the cross and departed for [[Ancona]] to conduct the crusade in person.<ref>{{cite book|last=Creighton | title= A History of the Papacy during the period of the Reformation| date= 21 March 1882|volume= II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PfdJAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA472}}, p. 472.</ref>

===Slavery===
Pius condemned the enslavement of newly baptized Christians as a "great crime". In a letter of 7 October 1462, addressed to the Bishop of Rubico in the [[Canary Islands]], Pius instructed bishops to impose ecclesiastical penalties on transgressors.<ref>Pastor III, pp. 281-282. Cesare Baronio, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=d1dAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA342 Annales ecclesiastici]: A. D. 1-1571 denuo excusi et ad nostra usque tempora perducti ab Augustino Theiner,'' {{in lang|la}}, Volume 29 (Bar-le-Duc: Typis et sumptibus Ludovici Guerin, 1876), pp. 341-342. Earle and Lowe, ''Black Africans in Renaissance Europe'' (2005), p. 281.</ref> Pius did not condemn the concept of trading in slaves, only the enslavement of Christians, who represented a very small minority of those captured and taken to Portugal.<ref>Hugh Thomas, ''The Slave Trade: The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440–1870'', p. 72, Picador, 1997, {{ISBN|0-330-35437-X}}, see also John Francis Maxwell, ''Slavery and the Catholic Church"'', (Barry Rose Publishers, 1975), p. 52.</ref>

===Pienza===
Pope Pius II inaugurated an unusual urban project, perhaps the first city-planning exercise in modern Europe.<ref>The bull "Pro Excellenti", 13 August 1462:  {{cite book|editor=Luigi Tomassetti |title=Bullarum, diplomatum et privilegiorum sanctorum romanorum pontificum taurinensis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DklEAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA166|volume=5 (Tomus V)|year=1860|publisher=Seb. Franco et Henrico Dalmazzo editoribus|location=Turin|language=Latin|pages=166–169}}</ref> He refurbished his hometown of Corsignano ([[province of Siena]]) and renamed it [[Pienza]], after himself.<ref>Charles Randall Mack, [https://books.google.com/books?id=AumYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 ''Pienza: The Creation of a Renaissance City,''] (Ithaca: Cornell University Press 2019), esp. pp. 17-32. Eugène Müntz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=9-5IAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA300 ''Les artes a la cour des Papes pendant le XV<sup>e</sup> e le XVI<sup>e</sup> siècle''] (Paris: Thorin 1878), pp. 300-305.</ref> A cathedral and palaces were built in the best style of the day to decorate the city.<ref>Giovanni Battista Mannucci, ''Pienza: i suoi monumenti e la sua diocesi,'' {{in lang|it}}, (Montepulciano: Tip. Madonna della Querce, 1915), pp. 11-17. [[John Julius Norwich]], ''Absolute Monarchs'', p. 255-256. Quote: "In just five years between 14[5]9 and 1464 he transformed his birthplace, the little village of Corsignano, redesigning it on classical lines according to all the latest theories of urban planning, giving it a cathedral and a magnificent palazzo for the use of his family, and renaming it after himself: Pienza."</ref> They survive to this day. He also issued a [[papal bull]], ''[[Cum almam nostram urbem]]'', on 28 April 1462, prohibiting damage to ancient ruins in Rome or [[Campagna]].<ref>Pastor III, p. 304. Müntz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=9-5IAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA352 ''Les artes a la cour des Papes pendant le XV<sup>e</sup> e le XVI<sup>e</sup> siècle''], pp. 352-353.</ref>