Editing Postmodern art (section)

==Radical movements in modern art==
In general, [[Pop Art]] and [[Minimalism]] began as modernist movements: a [[paradigm shift]] and philosophical split between [[Formalism (art)|formalism]] and anti-formalism in the early 1970s caused those movements to be viewed by some as precursors or transitional postmodern art. Other modern movements cited as influential to postmodern art are [[conceptual art]] and the use of techniques such as [[Assemblage (art)|assemblage]], [[Photomontage|montage]], [[bricolage]], and [[Appropriation (art)|appropriation]].

===Jackson Pollock and abstract expressionism===
{{Main|Jackson Pollock|Abstract expressionism|Western painting}}
During the late 1940s and early 1950s, [[Jackson Pollock|Pollock]]'s radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all [[Contemporary art]] following him. Pollock realized the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like [[Pablo Picasso]]'s innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture near the turn of the century via [[Cubism]] and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined artmaking during the mid-century. Pollock's move from easel painting and conventionality liberated his contemporaneous artists and following artists. They realized Pollock's process&nbsp;— working on the floor, unstretched raw canvas, from all four sides, using artist materials, industrial materials, imagery, non-imagery, throwing linear skeins of paint, dripping, drawing, staining, brushing&nbsp;- blasted artmaking beyond prior boundaries. [[Abstract expressionism]] expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities artists had available for the creation of new works of art. In a sense, the innovations of Jackson Pollock, [[Willem de Kooning]], [[Franz Kline]], [[Mark Rothko]], [[Philip Guston]], [[Hans Hofmann]], [[Clyfford Still]], [[Barnett Newman]], [[Ad Reinhardt]] and others, opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of following artworks.<ref>De Zegher, Catherine, and Teicher, Hendel (eds.), ''3 X Abstraction''. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2005.</ref>

===After abstract expressionism===
{{Main|Post-painterly abstraction|Color Field painting|Lyrical Abstraction|Arte Povera|Process Art|Western painting}}
In [[Abstract art|abstract painting]] during the 1950s and 1960s several new directions like [[Hard-edge painting]] and other forms of [[Geometric abstraction]] like the work of [[Frank Stella]] popped up, as a reaction against the subjectivism of Abstract expressionism began to appear in artist studios and in radical [[avant-garde]] circles. [[Clement Greenberg]] became the voice of ''Post-painterly abstraction;'' by curating an influential exhibition of new painting touring important art museums throughout the [[United States]] in 1964. [[Color field painting]], [[Hard-edge painting]] and [[Lyrical Abstraction]]<ref>Aldrich, Larry. Young Lyrical Painters, Art in America, v.57, n6, November–December 1969, pp.104–113.</ref> emerged as radical new directions.

By the late 1960s, [[Postminimalism]], [[Process Art]] and [[Arte Povera]]<ref name="douglas2007">''Movers and Shakers, New York'', "Leaving C&M", by Sarah Douglas, Art and Auction, March 2007, V.XXXNo7.</ref> also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements encompassing painting and sculpture, via [[Lyrical Abstraction]] and the [[Postminimalist]] movement, and in early [[Conceptual Art]].<ref name="douglas2007"/> Process art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, and plastic and real space. [[Nancy Graves]], [[Ronald Davis]], [[Howard Hodgkin]], [[Larry Poons]], [[Jannis Kounellis]], [[Brice Marden]], [[Bruce Nauman]], [[Richard Tuttle]], [[Alan Saret]], [[Walter Darby Bannard]], [[Lynda Benglis]], [[Dan Christensen]], [[Larry Zox]], [[Ronnie Landfield]], [[Eva Hesse]], [[Keith Sonnier]], [[Richard Serra]], [[Sam Gilliam]], [[Mario Merz]], [[Peter Reginato]], [[Lee Lozano]], were some of the younger artists emerging during the era of [[Late Modernism|late modernism]] spawning the heyday of the art of the late 1960s.<ref>Martin, Ann Ray, and Howard Junker. The New Art: It's Way, Way Out, Newsweek 29 July 1968: pp.3,55–63.</ref>

===Performance art and happenings===
{{Main|Performance art|Happenings}}

[[File:Schneemann-Interior Scroll.gif|thumb|200px|left|[[Carolee Schneemann]] performing her piece ''[[Interior Scroll]] 1975.'' [[Yves Klein]] in [[France]], and [[Carolee Schneemann]], [[Yayoi Kusama]], [[Charlotte Moorman]], and [[Yoko Ono]] in [[New York City]] were pioneers of performance based works of art that often entailed nudity.<ref>[http://www.caroleeschneemann.com/interiorscroll.html Interior Scroll, 1975]. Carolee Schneemann. Retrieved on 2013-08-02.</ref>]]
During the late 1950s and 1960s, artists with a wide range of interests began pushing the boundaries of [[Contemporary art]]. [[Yves Klein]] in [[France]], and [[Carolee Schneemann]], [[Yayoi Kusama]], [[Charlotte Moorman]], and [[Yoko Ono]] in [[New York City]] were pioneers of performance based works of art. Groups like The [[Living Theater]] with [[Julian Beck]] and [[Judith Malina]] collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments; radically changing the relationship between audience and performer especially in their piece ''Paradise Now''.<ref>[The Living Theatre (1971). ''Paradise Now''. New York: Random House.]</ref><ref>[[Gary Botting]], ''The Theatre of Protest in America'', Edmonton: Harden House, 1972.</ref> The [[Judson Dance Theater]] located at the [[Judson Memorial Church]], [[New York City|New York]], and the Judson dancers, notably [[Yvonne Rainer]], [[Trisha Brown]], [[Elaine Summers]], [[Sally Gross (choreographer)|Sally Gross]], Simonne Forti, [[Deborah Hay]], [[Lucinda Childs]], [[Steve Paxton]] and others collaborated with artists [[Robert Morris (artist)|Robert Morris]], [[Robert Whitman]], [[John Cage]], [[Robert Rauschenberg]], and engineers like [[Billy Klüver]].<ref>[Janevsky, Ana and Lax, Thomas (2018) ''Judson Dance Theater: The Work Is Never Done'' (exhibition catalog) New York: [[Museum of Modern Art]]. {{isbn|978-1-63345-063-9}}]</ref> These performances were often designed to be the creation of a new art form, combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation. The reductive philosophies of [[minimalism]], spontaneous improvisation, and expressivity of [[Abstract expressionism]] characterized the works.<ref>[Banes, Sally (1993) ''Democracy's Body: Judson Dance Theater, 1962-1964''. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. {{ISBN|0-8223-1399-5}}]</ref>

During the same period&nbsp;— the late 1950s through the mid-1960s&nbsp;- various [[avant-garde]] artists created [[Happenings]]. Happenings were mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in varied specified locations. Often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physical exercise, costumes, spontaneous [[nudity]], and various random and seemingly disconnected acts. [[Allan Kaprow]], [[Joseph Beuys]], [[Nam June Paik]], [[Wolf Vostell]], [[Claes Oldenburg]], [[Jim Dine]], [[Red Grooms]], and [[Robert Whitman]] among others were notable creators of Happenings.<ref>Michael Kirby, ''Happenings: An Illustrated Anthology'', scripts and productions by Jim Dine, Red Grooms, Allan Kaprow, Claes Oldenburg, Robert Whitman (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1965), p.&nbsp;21.</ref>

===Assemblage art===
{{Main|Assemblage art}}
Related to [[Abstract expressionism]] was the emergence of combined manufactured items&nbsp;— with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. The work of [[Robert Rauschenberg]], whose "combines" in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art and [[Installation art]], and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and [[commercial photography]], exemplified this art trend.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

[[Leo Steinberg]] uses the term postmodernism in 1969 to describe Rauschenberg's "flatbed" picture plane, containing a range of cultural images and artifacts that had not been compatible with the pictorial field of premodernist and modernist painting.<ref>Douglas Crimp in Hal Foster (ed), ''Postmodern Culture'', Pluto Press, 1985 (first published as ''The Anti-Aesthetic'', 1983). p44. {{ISBN|978-0-7453-0003-0}}</ref> [[Craig Owens (critic)|Craig Owens]] goes further, identifying the significance of Rauschenberg's work not as a representation of, in Steinberg's view, "the shift from nature to culture", but as a demonstration of the impossibility of accepting their opposition.<ref>Craig Owens, ''Beyond Recognition: Representation, Power, and Culture'', London and Berkeley: University of California Press (1992), pp74-75.</ref>

[[Steven Best]] and [[Douglas Kellner]] identify Rauschenberg and [[Jasper Johns]] as part of the transitional phase, influenced by [[Marcel Duchamp]], between modernism and postmodernism. These artists used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high modernism.<ref>Steven Best, Douglas Kellner, ''The Postmodern Turn'', Guilford Press, 1997, p174. {{ISBN|978-1-57230-221-1}}</ref>

[[Anselm Kiefer]] also uses elements of assemblage in his works, and on one occasion, featured the bow of a fishing boat in a painting.

===Pop art===
{{Main|Pop art|Western painting}}
[[Lawrence Alloway]] used the term "Pop art" to describe paintings celebrating [[consumerism]] of the post [[World War II]] era. This movement rejected [[Abstract expressionism]] and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior, in favor of art which depicted, and often celebrated, material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age. The early works of [[David Hockney]] and the works of [[Richard Hamilton (artist)|Richard Hamilton]], [[John McHale (artist)|John McHale]], and [[Eduardo Paolozzi]] were considered seminal examples in the movement. While later American examples include the bulk of the careers of [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Roy Lichtenstein]] and his use of [[Benday dots]], a technique used in commercial reproduction. There is a clear connection between the radical works of [[Duchamp]], the rebellious [[Dada]]ist&nbsp;— with a sense of humor; and [[Pop Art]]ists like [[Claes Oldenburg]], [[Andy Warhol]], [[Roy Lichtenstein]] and the others.

Thomas McEvilly, agreeing with [[Dave Hickey]], says U.S postmodernism in the visual arts began with the first exhibitions of Pop art in 1962, "though it took about twenty years before postmodernism became a dominant attitude in the visual arts."<ref name="McEvilly29">Thomas McEvilly in Richard Roth, Jean Dubuffet, Susan King, ''Beauty Is Nowhere: Ethical Issues in Art and Design'', Routledge, 1998. p29. {{ISBN|978-90-5701-311-9}}</ref> [[Fredric Jameson]], too, considers pop art to be postmodern.<ref>Fredric Jameson in Hal Foster, ''Postmodern Culture'', Pluto Press, 1985 (first published as ''The Anti-Aesthetic'', 1983). p111. {{ISBN|978-0-7453-0003-0}}</ref>

One way Pop art is postmodern is it breaks down what [[Andreas Huyssen]] calls the "Great Divide" between high art and popular culture.<ref>Simon Malpas, ''The Postmodern'', Routledge, 2005. p20. {{ISBN|978-0-415-28064-8}}</ref> Postmodernism emerges from a "generational refusal of the categorical certainties of high modernism."<ref>Stuart Sim, ''The Routledge Companion to Postmodernism'', Routledge, 2001. p148. {{ISBN|978-0-415-24307-0}}</ref>

===Fluxus===
{{Main|Fluxus}}
[[File:BrechtViolinSolo.jpg|thumb|200px|''Solo For Violin • Polishing'' as performed by [[George Brecht]], New York, 1964. Photo by G Maciunas]]
Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by [[George Maciunas]] (1931–78), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to [[John Cage]]'s 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at the [[New School for Social Research]] in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding members [[Jackson Mac Low]], [[Al Hansen]], [[George Brecht]] and [[Dick Higgins]].
In 1962 in Germany Fluxus started with the: FLUXUS Internationale Festspiele Neuester Musik in [[Wiesbaden]] with, [[George Maciunas]], [[Joseph Beuys]], [[Wolf Vostell]], [[Nam June Paik]] and others. And in 1963 with the: Festum Fluxorum Fluxus in [[Düsseldorf]] with [[George Maciunas]], [[Wolf Vostell]], [[Joseph Beuys]], [[Dick Higgins]], [[Nam June Paik]], [[Ben Patterson]], [[Emmett Williams]] and others.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

Fluxus encouraged a do it yourself aesthetic, and valued simplicity over complexity. Like [[Dada]] before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an [[anti-art]] sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues.

Fluxus can be viewed as part of the first phase of postmodernism, along with Rauschenberg, Johns, Warhol and the [[Situationist International]].<ref>Richard Sheppard, ''Modernism-Dada-Postmodernism'', Northwestern University
Press, 2000. p359. {{ISBN|978-0-8101-1492-0}}</ref> [[Andreas Huyssen]] criticises attempts to claim Fluxus for postmodernism as, "either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement&nbsp;– as it were, postmodernism's sublime." Instead he sees Fluxus as a major [[Neo-Dada]]ist phenomenon within the avant-garde tradition. It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against, "the administered culture of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated modernism served as ideological prop to the [[Cold War]]."<ref>Andreas Huyssen, ''Twilight Memories: Marking Time in a Culture of Amnesia'', Routledge, 1995. p192, p196. {{ISBN|978-0-415-90934-1}}</ref>

===Minimalism===
{{Main|Minimalism}}
[[File:Tonysmith freeride sculpture.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Tony Smith (sculptor)|Tony Smith]], ''Free Ride,'' 1962, 6'8 x 6'8 x 6'8 (the height of a standard US door opening), [[Museum of Modern Art]], [[New York City|New York]]]]
By the early 1960s, [[Minimalism]] emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in [[geometric abstraction]] via [[Kazimir Malevich|Malevich]], the [[Bauhaus]] and [[Piet Mondrian|Mondrian]]) which rejected the idea of relational, and subjective painting, the complexity of [[Abstract expressionist]] surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of [[Action painting]]. [[Minimalism]] argued extreme simplicity could capture the sublime representation art requires. Associated with painters such as [[Frank Stella]], minimalism in painting, as opposed to other areas, is a modernist movement and depending on the context can be construed as a precursor to the postmodern movement.

[[Hal Foster (art critic)|Hal Foster]], in his essay ''The Crux of Minimalism'', examines the extent to which [[Donald Judd]] and [[Robert Morris (artist)|Robert Morris]] both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian modernism in their published definitions of minimalism.<ref>Hal Foster, ''The Return of the Real: The Avant-garde at the End of the Century'', MIT Press, 1996, pp44-53. {{ISBN|978-0-262-56107-5}}</ref> He argues minimalism is not a "dead end" of modernism, but a "paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today."<ref name=Foster36/>

===Postminimalism===
{{Main|Postminimalism}}
[[File:Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png|thumb|200px|left|[[Robert Smithson]], "[[Spiral Jetty]]" in mid-April 2005. It was created in 1970.]]
[[Robert Pincus-Witten]] coined the term [[Post-minimalism]] in 1977 to describe minimalist derived art which had content and contextual overtones minimalism rejected. His use of the term covered the period 1966 – 1976 and applied to the work of [[Eva Hesse]], [[Keith Sonnier]], [[Richard Serra]] and new work by former minimalists [[Robert Smithson]], [[Robert Morris (artist)|Robert Morris]], [[Sol LeWitt]], and Barry Le Va, and others.<ref name="douglas2007"/> [[Process art]] and anti-form art are other terms describing this work, which the space it occupies and the process by which it is made determines.<ref>[[Erika Doss]], ''Twentieth-Century American Art'', Oxford University Press, 2002, p174. {{ISBN|978-0-19-284239-8}}</ref>

[[Rosalind Krauss]] argues by 1968 artists such as Morris, LeWitt, Smithson and Serra had "entered a situation the logical conditions of which can no longer be described as modernist."<ref name="Krauss287">The Originality of the Avant Garde and Other Modernist Myths [[Rosalind E. Krauss]], Publisher: The MIT Press; Reprint edition (July 9, 1986), ''Sculpture in the Expanded Field'' pp.287</ref> The expansion of the category of sculpture to include [[land art]] and [[architecture]], "brought about the shift into postmodernism."<ref>The Originality of the Avant Garde and Other Modernist Myths [[Rosalind E. Krauss]], Publisher: The MIT Press; Reprint edition (July 9, 1986), ''Sculpture in the Expanded Field'' (1979). pp.290</ref>

Minimalists like [[Donald Judd]], [[Dan Flavin]], [[Carl Andre]], [[Agnes Martin]], [[John McCracken (artist)|John McCracken]] and others continued to produce their late [[modernist]] paintings and sculpture for the remainder of their careers.