Editing Prosthesis (section)

==History==
[[File:Prosthetic toe.jpg|thumb|Prosthetic toe from ancient Egypt]]
Prosthetics originate from the [[ancient Near East]] circa 3000 BCE, with the earliest evidence of prosthetics appearing in [[ancient Egypt]] and [[ancient Iran|Iran]]. The earliest recorded mention of eye prosthetics is from the Egyptian story of the [[Eye of Horus]] dated circa 3000 BC, which involves the left eye of [[Horus]] being plucked out and then restored by [[Thoth]]. Circa 3000-2800 BC, the earliest archaeological evidence of prosthetics is found in ancient Iran, where an eye prosthetic is found buried with a woman in [[Shahr-i Shōkhta]]. It was likely made of bitumen paste that was covered with a thin layer of gold.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pine |first1=Keith R. |last2=Sloan |first2=Brian H. |last3=Jacobs |first3=Robert J. |title=Clinical Ocular Prosthetics |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783319190570 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=920nCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA283}}</ref> The Egyptians were also early pioneers of foot prosthetics, as shown by the wooden toe found on a body from the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] circa 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1705.htm |title=No. 1705: A 3000-Year-Old Toe |publisher=Uh.edu |date=2004-08-01 |access-date=2013-03-13}}</ref> Another early textual mention is found in [[South Asia]] circa 1200 BC, involving the warrior queen [[Vishpala]] in the [[Rigveda]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.acpoc.org/library/1976_05_015.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014173159/http://www.acpoc.org/library/1976_05_015.asp|url-status=dead|archive-date=2007-10-14|title=A Brief Review of the History of Amputations and Prostheses | author=Vanderwerker, Earl E. Jr. |year= 1976|volume=15|issue=5|journal=ICIB |pages=15–16}}</ref> Roman bronze [[crown (dentistry)|crowns]] have also been found, but their use could have been more aesthetic than medical.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rosenfeld |first1=Amnon |last2=Dvorachek |first2=Michael |last3=Rotstein |first3=Ilan |title=Bronze Single Crown-like Prosthetic Restorations of Teeth from the Late Roman Period |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |date=July 2000 |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=641–644 |doi=10.1006/jasc.1999.0517|bibcode=2000JArSc..27..641R }}</ref>

An early mention of a prosthetic comes from the Greek historian [[Herodotus]], who tells the story of [[Hegesistratus]], a Greek [[Divination|diviner]] who cut off his own foot to escape his [[Sparta]]n captors and replaced it with a wooden one.<ref>Herodotus, ''The Histories''. 9.37</ref>

=== Wood and metal prosthetics ===
[[File:Roman artificial leg of bronze. Wellcome M0012307.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The Capua leg (replica)]]
[[File:Shengjindian prosthetic leg, 300-200 BCE.jpg|upright=1.5|thumb|A wooden prosthetic leg from [[Shengjindian cemetery]], circa 300 BCE, [[Turpan Museum]]. This is "the oldest functional leg prosthesis known to date".<ref name=LX>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xiao |last2=Wagner |first2=Mayke |last3=Wu |first3=Xiaohong |last4=Tarasov |first4=Pavel |last5=Zhang |first5=Yongbin |last6=Schmidt |first6=Arno |last7=Goslar |first7=Tomasz |last8=Gresky |first8=Julia |title=Archaeological and palaeopathological study on the third/second century BC grave from Turfan, China: Individual health history and regional implications |journal=Quaternary International |date=21 March 2013 |volume=290-291 |pages=335–343 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2012.05.010 |bibcode=2013QuInt.290..335L |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.05.010 |issn=1040-6182|quote=Ten radiocarbon dates on the prosthesis, human bones and wood pieces from the same grave suggest the most probable age of the burial is about 300–200 BC (68% confidence interval), thus introducing the oldest functional leg prosthesis known to date.|url-access=subscription }}</ref>]]
[[File:Eiserne Hand Glasnegativ 6 cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Iron prosthetic hand believed to have been owned by Götz von Berlichingen (1480–1562)]]
[[File:Ambroise Pare; prosthetics, mechanical hand Wellcome L0023364.jpg|thumb|upright|"Illustration of mechanical hand", {{Circa|1564}}]]
[[File:Iron artificial arm, 1560-1600. (9663806794).jpg|thumb|Artificial iron hand believed to date from 1560 to 1600]]
[[Pliny the Elder]] also recorded the tale of a Roman general, [[Marcus Sergius]], whose right hand was cut off while campaigning and had an [[Iron hand (prosthesis)|iron hand]] made to hold his shield so that he could return to battle. A famous and quite refined<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.karlofgermany.com/Goetz.htm |title=The Iron Hand of the Goetz von Berlichingen |publisher=Karlofgermany.com |access-date=2009-11-03}}</ref> historical prosthetic arm was that of [[Götz von Berlichingen]], made at the beginning of the 16th century. The first confirmed use of a prosthetic device, however, is from 950 to 710 BC. In 2000, research pathologists discovered a mummy from this period buried in the Egyptian necropolis near ancient Thebes that possessed an artificial big toe. This toe, consisting of wood and leather, exhibited evidence of use. When reproduced by bio-mechanical engineers in 2011, researchers discovered that this ancient prosthetic enabled its wearer to walk both barefoot and in Egyptian style sandals. Previously, the earliest discovered prosthetic was an artificial [[Roman Capua Leg|leg from Capua]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Finch |first1=Jacqueline |title=The ancient origins of prosthetic medicine |journal=The Lancet |date=February 2011 |volume=377 |issue=9765 |pages=548–9 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(11)60190-6 |pmid=21341402 |s2cid=42637892 }}</ref>

Around the same time, [[François de la Noue]] is also reported to have had an iron hand, as is, in the 17th century, [[Cavalier de la Salle|René-Robert Cavalier de la Salle]].<ref>{{cite book|date=1887|publisher=S. Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington|place=London|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofca00bryc |title=A Short History of the Canadian People|author=Bryce, Geore}}</ref> [[Henri de Tonti]] had a prosthetic hook for a hand. During the Middle Ages, prosthetics remained quite basic in form. Debilitated knights would be fitted with prosthetics so they could hold up a shield, grasp a lance or a sword, or stabilize a mounted warrior.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Friedman|first1=Lawrence|title=The Psychological Rehabilitation of the Amputee|date=1978|publisher=Charles C. Thomas|location=Springfield, IL.}}</ref> Only the wealthy could afford anything that would assist in daily life.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Breiding |first=Authors: Dirk H. |title=Arms and Armor—Common Misconceptions and Frequently Asked Questions {{!}} Essay {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/aams/hd_aams.htm |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |date=October 2004 |language=en}}</ref>

One notable prosthesis was that belonging to an Italian man, who scientists estimate replaced his amputated right hand with a knife.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/medieval-lombard-man-amputated-arm-knife-prosthesis|title=This Medieval Italian Man Replaced His Amputated Hand With a Weapon|last=Starr|first=Michelle|work=ScienceAlert|access-date=2018-04-17|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Micarelli |first1=I |last2=Paine |first2=R |last3=Giostra |first3=C |last4=Tafuri |first4=MA |last5=Profico |first5=A |last6=Boggioni |first6=M |last7=Di Vincenzo |first7=F |last8=Massani |first8=D |last9=Papini |first9=A |last10=Manzi |first10=G |title=Survival to amputation in pre-antibiotic era: a case study from a Longobard necropolis (6th-8th centuries AD) |journal=Journal of Anthropological Sciences |date=31 December 2018 |volume=96 |issue=96 |pages=185–200 |doi=10.4436/JASS.96001 |pmid=29717991 }}</ref> Scientists investigating the skeleton, which was found in a [[Longobard]] cemetery in [[Povegliano Veronese]], estimated that the man had lived sometime between the 6th and 8th centuries AD.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kristinakillgrove/2018/04/12/archaeologists-find-ancient-knife-hand-prosthesis-on-medieval-warrior/#1ed6d0339155|title=Archaeologists Find Ancient Knife-Hand Prosthesis on Medieval Warrior|last=Killgrove|first=Kristina|work=Forbes|access-date=2018-04-17|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Materials found near the man's body suggest that the knife prosthesis was attached with a leather strap, which he repeatedly tightened with his teeth.<ref name=":1" />

During the Renaissance, prosthetics developed with the use of iron, steel, copper, and wood. Functional prosthetics began to make an appearance in the 1500s.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://unyq.com/the-history-of-prosthetics/|title=The History of Prosthetics|date=2015-09-21|work=UNYQ|access-date=2018-04-17|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Technology progress before the 20th century ===
An Italian surgeon recorded the existence of an amputee who had an arm that allowed him to remove his hat, open his purse, and sign his name.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Romm |first1=Sharon |title=Arms by Design |journal=Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery |date=July 1989 |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=158–63 |pmid=2660173 |doi=10.1097/00006534-198907000-00029 }}</ref> Improvement in amputation surgery and prosthetic design came at the hands of [[Ambroise Paré]]. Among his inventions was an above-knee device that was a kneeling [[peg leg]] and foot prosthesis with a fixed position, adjustable harness, and knee lock control. The functionality of his advancements showed how future prosthetics could develop.

Other major improvements before the modern era:
* [[Pieter Verduyn]]&nbsp;– First non-locking below-knee (BK) prosthesis.
* [[James Potts]]&nbsp;– Prosthesis made of a wooden shank and socket, a steel knee joint and an articulated foot that was controlled by catgut tendons from the knee to the ankle. Came to be known as "Anglesey Leg" or "Selpho Leg".
* Sir [[James Syme]]&nbsp;– A new method of ankle amputation that did not involve amputating at the thigh.
* [[Benjamin Palmer]]&nbsp;– Improved upon the Selpho leg. Added an anterior spring and concealed tendons to simulate natural-looking movement.
* [[Dubois Parmlee]]&nbsp;– Created prosthetic with a suction socket, polycentric knee, and multi-articulated foot.
* [[Marcel Desoutter]] & [[Charles Desoutter]]&nbsp;– First aluminium prosthesis<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://www.amputee-coalition.org/inmotion/nov_dec_07/history_prosthetics.html | work=inMotion: A Brief History of Prosthetics | title=A Brief History of Prosthetics| date=November–December 2007| access-date=23 November 2010}}</ref>
* Henry Heather Bigg, and his son Henry Robert Heather Bigg, won the Queen's command to provide "surgical appliances" to wounded soldiers after Crimea War. They developed arms that allowed a double arm amputee to crochet, and a hand that felt natural to others based on ivory, felt and leather.<ref>Bigg, Henry Robert Heather (1885) [https://archive.org/details/b22293875 ''Artificial Limbs and the Amputations which Afford the Most Appropriate Stumps in Civil and Military Surgery'']. London</ref>

At the end of World War II, the NAS (National Academy of Sciences) began to advocate better research and development of prosthetics. Through government funding, a research and development program was developed within the Army, Navy, Air Force, and the Veterans Administration.

===Lower extremity modern history===
[[File:A Visit To the Artificial Limbs Factory, Queen Mary's Hospital, Roehampton, November 1941 D5731.jpg|thumbnail|left|An artificial limbs factory in 1941]]
After the Second World War, a team at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] including [[James Foort]] and C.W. Radcliff helped to develop the quadrilateral socket by developing a jig fitting system for amputations above the knee. Socket technology for lower extremity limbs saw a further revolution during the 1980s when John Sabolich C.P.O., invented the Contoured Adducted Trochanteric-Controlled Alignment Method (CATCAM) socket, later to evolve into the Sabolich Socket. He followed the direction of Ivan Long and Ossur Christensen as they developed alternatives to the quadrilateral socket, which in turn followed the open ended plug socket, created from wood.<ref name="Long">{{cite journal |last1=Long |first1=Ivan A. |title=Normal Shape-Normal Alignment (NSNA) Above-Knee Prosthesis |via= O&P Virtual Library |journal=Clinical Prosthetics & Orthotics |year=1985 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=9–14 |url=http://www.oandplibrary.org/cpo/1985_04_009.asp }}</ref> The advancement was due to the difference in the socket to patient contact model. Prior to this, sockets were made in the shape of a square shape with no specialized containment for muscular tissue. New designs thus help to lock in the bony anatomy, locking it into place and distributing the weight evenly over the existing limb as well as the musculature of the patient. Ischial containment is well known and used today by many prosthetist to help in patient care. Variations of the ischial containment socket thus exists and each socket is tailored to the specific needs of the patient. Others who contributed to socket development and changes over the years include Tim Staats, Chris Hoyt, and Frank Gottschalk. Gottschalk disputed the efficacy of the CAT-CAM socket- insisting the surgical procedure done by the amputation surgeon was most important to prepare the amputee for good use of a prosthesis of any type socket design.<ref name="Gottschalk-Kourosh-Stills">{{cite journal |last1=Gottschalk |first1=Frank A. |last2=Kourosh |first2=Sohrab |last3=Stills |first3=Melvin |last4=McClellan |first4=Bruce |last5=Roberts |first5=Jim |title=Does Socket Configuration Influence the Position of the Femur in Above-Knee Amputation? |journal=Journal of Prosthetics and Orthotics |date=October 1989 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=94 |doi=10.1097/00008526-198910000-00009 }}</ref>

The first microprocessor-controlled prosthetic knees became available in the early 1990s. The Intelligent Prosthesis was the first commercially available microprocessor-controlled prosthetic knee. It was released by Chas. A. Blatchford & Sons, Ltd., of Great Britain, in 1993 and made walking with the prosthesis feel and look more natural.<ref>[http://www.blatchford.co.uk/about/company-history/ "Blatchford Company History"], Blatchford Group.</ref> An improved version was released in 1995 by the name Intelligent Prosthesis Plus. Blatchford released another prosthesis, the Adaptive Prosthesis, in 1998. The Adaptive Prosthesis utilized hydraulic controls, pneumatic controls, and a microprocessor to provide the amputee with a gait that was more responsive to changes in walking speed. Cost analysis reveals that a sophisticated above-knee prosthesis will be about $1&nbsp;million in 45 years, given only annual cost of living adjustments.<ref name=PikeAlvin/>

In 2019, a project under AT2030 was launched in which bespoke sockets are made using a thermoplastic, rather than through a plaster cast. This is faster to do and significantly less expensive. The sockets were called Amparo Confidence sockets.<ref>[https://www.disabilityinnovation.com/gdi-community/blog/one-small-step-for-an-amputee-and-a-giant-leap-for-amparo-and-gdi-hub One small step for an amputee and a giant leap for Amparo and GDI Hub]</ref><ref>[https://www.disabilityinnovation.com/research/changing-prosthetic-service-delivery-with-amparo Changing Prosthetic Service Delivery with Amparo]</ref>

===Upper extremity modern history===
[[File:DARPA 2006b RP 619x316.jpg|thumb|DARPA Revolutionizing Prosthetics - The LUKE Arm]]
In 2005, [[DARPA]] started the Revolutionizing Prosthetics program.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Matthew S. |last1=Johannes |first2=John D. |last2=Bigelow |first3=James M. |last3=Burck |first4=Stuart D. |last4=Harshbarger |first5=Matthew V. |last5=Kozlowski |first6=Thomas |last6=Van Doren |url=http://www.jhuapl.edu/techdigest/TD/td3003/30_3-Johannes.pdf |title=An Overview of the Developmental Process for the Modular Prosthetic Limb |journal=Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest |volume=30 |issue=3 |year=2011 |pages=207–16 |access-date=2017-10-05 |archive-date=2017-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919024845/http://www.jhuapl.edu/techdigest/TD/td3003/30_3-Johannes.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adee |first1=Sally |title=The revolution will be prosthetized |journal=IEEE Spectrum |date=January 2009 |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=44–8 |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/winner-the-revolution-will-be-prosthetized |doi=10.1109/MSPEC.2009.4734314 |s2cid=34235585 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=James M. |last1=Burck |first2=John D. |last2=Bigelow |first3=Stuart D. |last3=Harshbarger |title=Revolutionizing Prosthetics: Systems Engineering Challenges and Opportunities |journal=Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest |volume=30 |issue=3 |year=2011 |pages=186–97 |citeseerx=10.1.1.685.6772}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bogue |first1=Robert |title=Exoskeletons and robotic prosthetics: a review of recent developments |journal=Industrial Robot |date=21 August 2009 |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=421–427 |doi=10.1108/01439910910980141 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miranda |first1=Robbin A. |last2=Casebeer |first2=William D. |last3=Hein |first3=Amy M. |last4=Judy |first4=Jack W. |last5=Krotkov |first5=Eric P. |last6=Laabs |first6=Tracy L. |last7=Manzo |first7=Justin E. |last8=Pankratz |first8=Kent G. |last9=Pratt |first9=Gill A. |last10=Sanchez |first10=Justin C. |last11=Weber |first11=Douglas J. |last12=Wheeler |first12=Tracey L. |last13=Ling |first13=Geoffrey S.F. |title=DARPA-funded efforts in the development of novel brain–computer interface technologies |journal=Journal of Neuroscience Methods |date=April 2015 |volume=244 |pages=52–67 |doi=10.1016/j.jneumeth.2014.07.019 |pmid=25107852 |s2cid=14678623 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Pentagon's Bionic Arm |date=10 April 2009 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-pentagons-bionic-arm/ |publisher=CBS News |access-date=9 May 2015 }}</ref> According to DARPA, the goal of the $100 million program was to "develop an advanced electromechanical prosthetic upper limb with near-natural control that would dramatically enhance independence and quality of life for amputees."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Revolutionizing Prosthetics |url=https://www.darpa.mil/about-us/timeline/revolutionizing-prosthetics |access-date=June 4, 2024 |website=darpa.mil}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=Dean Kamen's "Luke Arm" Prosthesis Receives FDA Approval - IEEE Spectrum |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/dean-kamen-luke-arm-prosthesis-receives-fda-approval |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=[[IEEE]] |language=en}}</ref>  In 2014, the LUKE Arm developed by [[Dean Kamen]] and his team at [[DEKA (company)|DEKA Research and Development Corp.]] became the first prosthetic arm approved by [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] that "translates signals from a person's muscles to perform complex tasks," according to FDA.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Winner: The Revolution Will Be Prosthetized - IEEE Spectrum |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/winner-the-revolution-will-be-prosthetized |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=[[IEEE]] |language=en}}</ref> [[Johns Hopkins University]] and the [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs|U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs]] also participated in the program.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The LUKE/DEKA advanced prosthetic arm |url=https://www.research.va.gov/research_in_action/The-LUKE-DEKA-advanced-prosthetic-arm.cfm |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=www.research.va.gov}}</ref>

=== Design trends moving forward ===
There are many steps in the evolution of prosthetic design trends that are moving forward with time. Many design trends point to lighter, more durable, and flexible materials like carbon fiber, silicone, and advanced polymers. These not only make the prosthetic limb lighter and more durable but also allow it to mimic the look and feel of natural skin, providing users with a more comfortable and natural experience.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=September 28, 2023 |title=The Evolution of Prosthetic Limbs: Current Technological Advancements |url=https://www.premierprosthetic.com/09/the-evolution-of-prosthetic-limbs-current-technological-advancements/ |access-date=2023-11-27 |website=premierprosthetic.com |language=en-US}}</ref> This new technology helps prosthetic users blend in with people with normal ligaments to reduce the stigmatism for people who wear prosthetics. Another trend points towards using [[bionics]] and myoelectric components in prosthetic design. These limbs utilize sensors to detect electrical signals from the user's residual muscles. The signals are then converted into motions, allowing users to control their prosthetic limbs using their own muscle contractions. This has greatly improved the range and fluidity of movements available to amputees, making tasks like grasping objects or walking naturally much more feasible.<ref name=":7" /> Integration with AI is also on the forefront to the prosthetic design. AI-enabled prosthetic limbs can learn and adapt to the user's habits and preferences over time, ensuring optimal functionality. By analyzing the user's gait, grip, and other movements, these smart limbs can make real-time adjustments, providing smoother and more natural motions.<ref name=":7" />