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Qualitative research
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== Data collection == Qualitative researchers may gather information through observations, note-taking, interviews, focus groups (group interviews), documents, images and artifacts.<ref>Marshall, Catherine & Rossman, Gretchen B. (1998). ''Designing Qualitative Research''. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. {{ISBN|0-7619-1340-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bogdan|first1=R.|last2=Ksander|first2=M.|year=1980|title=Policy data as a social process: A qualitative approach to quantitative data|journal=[[Human Organization]]|volume=39|issue=4|pages=302–309|doi=10.17730/humo.39.4.x42432981487k54q}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenthal|first=Gabriele|url=https://univerlag.uni-goettingen.de/handle/3/isbn-978-3-86395-374-4|title=Social Interpretive Research. An Introduction.|publisher=Universitätsverlag Göttingen|year=2018|isbn=978-3-86395-374-4|location=Göttingen|doi=10.17875/gup2018-1103}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite book |last1=Savin-Baden |first1=M. |last2=Major |first2=C. |title=Qualitative Research: The Essential Guide to Theory and Practice |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |location=London }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=S. J. |last2=Bogdan |first2=R. |year=1984 |title=Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: The Search for Meanings |edition= 2nd |location=Singapore |publisher=John Wiley and Sons }}</ref><ref>Murphy, E; Dingwall, R (2003). ''Qualitative methods and health policy research'' (1st edition). Routledge (reprinted as an e-book in 2017).</ref><ref name="babbie">{{cite book|last=Babbie|first=Earl|title=The Basics of Social Research|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage|year=2014|isbn=9781133594147|edition=6th|location=[[Belmont, California]]|pages=303–04|oclc=824081715}}</ref> ===Interviews=== {{Main|Interview (research)}} Research interviews are an important method of data collection in qualitative research. An interviewer is usually a professional or paid researcher, sometimes trained, who poses questions to the interviewee, in an alternating series of usually brief questions and answers, to elicit information. Compared to something like a written survey, qualitative interviews allow for a significantly higher degree of intimacy,<ref>Seidman, Irving. Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and the Social Sciences. Teachers College Press, 1998, pg.49</ref> with participants often revealing personal information to their interviewers in a real-time, face-to-face setting. As such, this technique can evoke an array of significant feelings and experiences within those being interviewed. Sociologists Bredal, Stefansen and Bjørnholt identified three "participant orientations", that they described as "telling for oneself", "telling for others" and "telling for the researcher". They also proposed that these orientations implied "different ethical contracts between the participant and researcher".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bredal |first1=Anja |last2=Stefansen |first2=Kari |last3=Bjørnholt |first3=Margunn |title=Why do people participate in research interviews? Participant orientations and ethical contracts in interviews with victims of interpersonal violence |journal=[[Qualitative Research (journal)|Qualitative Research]] |date=2022 |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=287–304 |doi=10.1177/14687941221138409|s2cid=254487490 |doi-access=free |hdl=11250/3052848 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> === Participant observation === In [[participant observation]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.techsociety.com/cal/soc190/fssba2009/ParticipantObservation.pdf|title=Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector's Field Guide|publisher=techsociety.com|access-date=7 October 2010}}</ref> ethnographers get to understand a culture by directly participating in the activities of the culture they study.<ref>Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2002) ''Qualitative communication research methods: Second edition''. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. {{ISBN|0-7619-2493-0}}</ref> Participant observation extends further than ethnography and into other fields, including psychology. For example, by training to be an EMT and becoming a participant observer in the lives of EMTs, Palmer studied how EMTs cope with the stress associated with some of the gruesome emergencies they deal with.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Palmer | first1 = C.E. | year = 1983 | title = A note about paramedics' strategies for dealing with death and dying | url = | journal = Journal of Occupational Psychology | volume = 56 | issue = | pages = 83–86 | doi = 10.1111/j.2044-8325.1983.tb00114.x }}</ref> === Recursivity === In qualitative research, the idea of [[Recursion|recursivity]] refers to the emergent nature of research design. In contrast to standardized research methods, recursivity embodies the idea that the qualitative researcher can change a study's design during the [[data collection]] phase.<ref name=":02"/> Recursivity in qualitative research procedures contrasts to the methods used by scientists who conduct [[experiment]]s. From the perspective of the scientist, data collection, data analysis, discussion of the data in the context of the research literature, and drawing conclusions should be each undertaken once (or at most a small number of times). In qualitative research however, data are collected repeatedly until one or more specific stopping conditions are met, reflecting a nonstatic attitude to the planning and design of research activities. An example of this dynamism might be when the qualitative researcher unexpectedly changes their research focus or design midway through a study, based on their first interim data analysis. The researcher can even make further unplanned changes based on another interim data analysis. Such an approach would not be permitted in an experiment. Qualitative researchers would argue that recursivity in developing the relevant evidence enables the researcher to be more open to unexpected results and emerging new [[Construct (psychology)|constructs]].<ref name=":02"/>
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