Editing Quinoa (section)

==Cultivation==
Over the last 5,000{{nbsp}}years the biogeography of ''Ch. quinoa'' has changed greatly, mainly by human influence, convenience and preference. It has changed not only in the area of distribution, but also in regards to the climate this plant was originally adapted to, in contrast to the climates on which it is able to successfully grow in now. In a process started by a number of pre-Inca South American indigenous cultures, people in Chile have been adapting quinoa to salinity and other forms of stress over the last 3,000{{nbsp}}years.<ref name="Bazile2014" /> Quinoa is also cultivated, since an early date, near the coast of [[Norte Grande|northern Chile]], where it was grown by the [[Chinchorro culture]].{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=148}} ''Ch.&nbsp;quinoa'' was brought to the lowlands of south-central Chile at an early date from the Andean highlands.{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=147}}{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=148}} Varieties in the lowlands of south-central Chile derive directly from ancestral cultivars which then evolved in parallel to those of the highlands.{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=147}} It has been suggested that the introduction of ''Ch.&nbsp;quinoa'' occurred before highland varieties with [[flour]]y [[perisperm]] emerged.{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=147}}{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=148}} There are wide discrepancies in the suggested dates of introduction, one study suggests c. 1000 BC as the introduction date while another suggests 600–1100 AD.{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=148}} In colonial times the plant is known to have been cultivated as far south as the [[Chiloé Archipelago]] and the shores of [[Nahuel Huapi Lake]].{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=147}} The [[cuisine of Chiloé]] included bread made of quinoa until at least the mid-19th century.{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=150}}

In Chile it had almost disappeared by the early 1940s; as of 2015 the crop is mostly grown in three areas by only some 300 smallholder farmers. Each of these areas is different: indigenous small-scale growers near the border with Bolivia who grow many types of Bolivian forms, a few farmers in the central region who exclusively grow a white-seeded variety and generally market their crops through a well-known cooperative, and in the south by women in home gardens in [[Mapuche]] reserves.<ref name="Bazile2014" />

When Amaranthaceae became abundant in [[Lake Pacucha]], Peru, the lake was fresh, and the lack of Amaranthaceae taxa strongly indicates droughts which turned the lake into a [[Salt marsh|saltmarsh]]. Based on the pollen associated with soil manipulation, this is an area of the Andes where domestication of ''C.{{nbsp}}quinoa'' became popular, although it was not the only one. It was domesticated in various geographical zones. With this, morphological adaptations began to happen until having five [[ecotype]]s today. Quinoa's genetic diversity illustrates that it was and is a vital crop.{{sfn|Murphy|Matanguihan|2015|p=14}}[[File:Calca Peru- Quinoa seller at mercado II.jpg|thumb|Quinoa seller at market in [[Calca, Peru]]]]Andean agronomists and nutrition scientists began researching quinoa in the early twentieth century, and it became the subject of much interest among researchers involved in [[neglected and underutilized crop]] studies in the 1970s.<ref name="McDonell">{{cite book |last1=Wilk |first1=Richard |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/critical-approaches-to-superfoods-9781350123878/ |title=Critical Approaches to Superfoods |last2=McDonell |first2=Emma |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-350-12387-8 |publication-place=London |page= |oclc=1204141540}}</ref>

In 2004, the international community became increasingly interested in quinoa and it entered a boom and bust economic cycle that would last for over ten years. Between 2004 and 2011, quinoa became a more interesting commodity and global excitement for it increased. At this point, Bolivia and Peru were the only major producers of quinoa. In 2013, there was an extreme increase in imports of quinoa by the United States, Canada and various European countries. In 2016, growth began to slow. Imports were still increasing but at a slower rate and quinoa prices declined as other countries began producing it.<ref name=":2" /> By 2015, over 75 countries were producing quinoa, as opposed to only eight countries in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bazile |first1=Didier |last2=Jacobsen |first2=Sven-Erik |last3=Verniau |first3=Alexis |date=2016-05-09 |title=The Global Expansion of Quinoa: Trends and Limits |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |language=English |volume=7 |page=622 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2016.00622 |issn=1664-462X |pmc=4860459 |pmid=27242826 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2016FrPS....7..622B }}</ref>

Particularly for the high variety of Chilean landraces, in addition to how the plant has adapted to different latitudes, this crop is now potentially cultivable almost anywhere in the world.<ref name="Bazile2014" />

===Climate requirements===
The plant's growth is highly variable due to the number of different subspecies, varieties and [[landrace]]s (domesticated plants or animals adapted to the environment in which they originated). However, it is generally undemanding and altitude-hardy; it is grown from coastal regions to over {{cvt|4000|m|ft}} in the Andes near the equator, with most of the cultivars being grown between {{cvt|2500|m|ft}} and {{cvt|4000|m|ft}}. Depending on the variety, optimal growing conditions are in cool climates with temperatures that vary between {{cvt|-4|C|F}} during the night to near {{cvt|35|C|F}} during the day. Some cultivars can withstand lower temperatures without damage. Light frosts normally do not affect the plants at any stage of development, except during flowering. Midsummer frosts during flowering, a frequent occurrence in the Andes, lead to sterilization of the pollen. Rainfall requirements are highly variable between the different cultivars, ranging from {{cvt|300|to|1000|mm|in}} during the [[growing season]]. Growth is optimal with well-distributed rainfall during early growth and no rain during seed maturation and harvesting.<ref name="Lost crops" />

==== United States ====
Quinoa has been cultivated in the United States, primarily in the high elevation [[San Luis Valley]] of [[Colorado]] where it was introduced in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.localfoodshift.pub/growing-quinoa-in-colorado-an-interview-with-paul-new-white-mountain-farm/ |date=February 19, 2016 |title=Growing Quinoa in Colorado: An interview with Paul New, White Mountain Farm |last=LeFrancois-Hanson |first=Zoe |website=Local Food Shift |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=8 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180908172701/http://www.localfoodshift.pub/growing-quinoa-in-colorado-an-interview-with-paul-new-white-mountain-farm/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> In this high-altitude desert valley, maximum summer temperatures rarely exceed {{cvt|30|°C|°F}} and night temperatures are about {{cvt|7|°C|°F}}. In the 2010s, experimental production was attempted in the [[Palouse]] region of Eastern Washington,<ref>{{cite news |title=Quinoa seed of change for Palouse farmers |date=May 3, 2014 |author=Kara Mcmurray |newspaper=[[The Spokesman-Review]] |location=Spokane |url=https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2014/may/03/quinoa-seed-of-change-for-palouse-farmers/}}</ref> and farmers in [[Western Washington]] began producing the crop. The [[Washington State University]] [[Skagit River|Skagit River Valley]] research facility near [[Mount Vernon, Washington|Mount Vernon]] grew thousands of its own experimental varieties.<ref>{{cite news |title=Growing quinoa in Skagit County |author=Julia-Grace Sanders |date=October 23, 2018 |newspaper=[[Skagit Valley Herald]] |location=Burlington, Washington |url=https://www.goskagit.com/news/local_news/growing-quinoa-in-skagit-county/article_3f38b215-a2b3-5c43-8099-f249d058c848.html}}</ref> The Puget Sound region's climate is similar to that of coastal Chile where the crop has been grown for centuries.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The Seattle Times |title=Quinoa comes to the Northwest |date=August 2, 2016 |author=Rebekah Denn |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/pacific-nw-magazine/quinoa-comes-to-the-northwest/}}</ref> Due to the short growing season, North American cultivation requires short-maturity varieties, typically of [[Bolivia]]n origin. Quinoa is planted in [[Idaho]] where a variety developed and bred specifically for the high-altitude [[Snake River Plain]] is the largest planted variety in North America.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.capitalpress.com/ag_sectors/grains/western-innovator-processor-pioneers-quinoa-production/article_1c832fe8-dbef-11e9-91af-9f5a171f25ed.html |title=Western Innovator: Processor pioneers quinoa production |author=Dianna Troyer |work=Capital Press |access-date=2020-02-15 |date=3 October 2019}}</ref>

==== Europe ====
Several countries within Europe have successfully grown quinoa on a commercial scale.<ref>{{Cite web |title=European Quinoa Group |url=http://www.quinoaeurope.eu/ |website=www.quinoaeurope.eu |access-date=2015-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320224734/http://www.quinoaeurope.eu/ |archive-date=20 March 2018}}</ref> Southern England, Holland and Denmark all have significant production.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jacobsen |first=Sven-Erik |date=2003-01-05 |title=The Worldwide Potential for Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoaWilld.) |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1081/FRI-120018883 |journal=Food Reviews International |volume=19 |issue=1–2 |pages=167–177 |doi=10.1081/FRI-120018883 |issn=8755-9129|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Sowing ===
Quinoa requires a significant amount of precipitation in order to germinate, therefore the traditional sowing date in [[Peru]] was between September and November. To increase the chance that more crops survive it would be advantageous to split up the sowing date among the plants. Traditionally quinoa was sowed by broadcast, in rows or grooves, or by broadcast and then making rows. Soil preparation should occur before sowing, and weeding should come soon after sowing the seeds.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Aguilar |first1=Pablo Cesar |last2=Jacobsen |first2=Sven-Erik |date=2003-01-05 |title=Cultivation of Quinoa on the Peruvian Altiplano |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1081/FRI-120018866 |journal=Food Reviews International |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1–2 |pages=31–41 |doi=10.1081/FRI-120018866 |issn=8755-9129|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[Crop rotation|Rotation]] is used in its Andean native range. Rotation is common with [[potato]], [[cereal]]s and [[legume]]s including ''[[Lupinus mutabilis]]''.<ref name="Zhang-et-al-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Heng |last2=Li |first2=Yuanyuan |last3=Zhu |first3=Jian-Kang |date=2018-11-26 |title=Developing naturally stress-resistant crops for a sustainable agriculture |journal=[[Nature Plants]] |volume=4 |issue=12 |pages=989–996 |bibcode=2018NatPl...4..989Z |doi=10.1038/s41477-018-0309-4 |pmid=30478360 |s2cid=53770458}}</ref><ref name="Rasmussen-et-al-2003">{{cite journal |last1=Rasmussen |first1=Claus |last2=Lagnaoui |first2=Aziz |last3=Esbjerg |first3=Peter |date=2003-01-05 |title=Advances in the Knowledge of Quinoa Pests |url=http://orgprints.org/28718/7/28718.pdf |journal=Food Reviews International |volume=19 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–75 |doi=10.1081/fri-120018868 |s2cid=55311455}}</ref> Traditionally, quinoa rotation happens in plots called aynoqas. These are made up of different sized plots in different zones, and each family unit would own plots in different areas. The aynoqas allowed for better crop yield, agricultural and ecological sustainability, and food security within communities.<ref name=":1" />

===Soil===
Quinoa plants do best in sandy, well-drained soils with a low nutrient content, moderate salinity, and a [[soil pH]] of 6 to{{nbsp}}8.5. The [[seedbed]] must be well prepared and drained to avoid waterlogging.<ref name="AlternativeFieldCropsManual">{{cite book |title=Alternative Field Crops Manual |date=January 20, 2000 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Extension and University of Minnesota |article=Quinoa |article-url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/NEWCROP/AFCM/quinoa.html}}</ref>

Quinoa has gained attention for its adaptability to contrasting environments such as saline soils, nutrient-poor soils and drought stressed marginal agroecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hinojosa |first1=Leonardo |last2=González |first2=Juan |last3=Barrios-Masias |first3=Felipe |last4=Fuentes |first4=Francisco |last5=Murphy |first5=Kevin |last6=Hinojosa |first6=Leonardo |last7=González |first7=Juan A. |last8=Barrios-Masias |first8=Felipe H. |last9=Fuentes |first9=Francisco |date=November 2018 |title=Quinoa Abiotic Stress Responses: A Review |journal=Plants |volume=7 |issue=4 |page=106 |doi=10.3390/plants7040106 |pmid=30501077 |pmc=6313892 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018Plnts...7..106H }}</ref>

===Genetics===
The [[genome]] of quinoa was sequenced in 2017.<ref name="jarvis">{{Cite journal |last1=Jarvis |first1=David E. |last2=Ho |first2=Yung Shwen |last3=Lightfoot |first3=Damien J. |last4=Schmöckel |first4=Sandra M. |last5=Li |first5=Bo |last6=Borm |first6=Theo J.A. |last7=Ohyanagi |first7=Hajime |last8=Mineta |first8=Katsuhiko |last9=Michell |first9=Craig T. |date=2017-02-08 |title=The genome of ''Chenopodium quinoa'' |journal=Nature |type=advance online publication |language=en |volume=542 |issue=7641 |pages=307–312 |bibcode=2017Natur.542..307J |doi=10.1038/nature21370 |pmid=28178233 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10754/622874}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-38908321 |title=Quinoa genome could see 'super-food' prices tumble |work=BBC News |date=8 February 2017 |access-date=9 February 2017 |last1=McGrath |first1=Matt}}</ref> Through traditional selective breeding and, potentially, [[genetic engineering]], the plant is being modified to have higher [[crop yield]], improved tolerance to heat and [[biotic stress]], and greater sweetness through saponin inhibition.<ref name="jarvis" />

===Harvesting===
Traditionally, quinoa grain is harvested by hand, and only rarely by machine, because the extreme variability of the maturity period of most quinoa cultivars complicates mechanization. Harvest needs to be precisely timed to avoid high seed losses from shattering, and different panicles on the same plant mature at different times.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://homeguides.sfgate.com/harvest-quinoa-90172.html |title=How to Harvest Quinoa |website=homeguides.sfgate.com |date=29 October 2013 |access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/how-does-quinoa-grow_n_592e1cf0e4b0e95ac194de75 |title=Bet You Had No Idea What Quinoa Looks Like When It Grows |date=2017-06-01 |website=HuffPost |access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref> The [[crop yield]] in the Andean region (often around 3 t/ha up to 5 t/ha) is comparable to wheat yields. In the United States, varieties have been selected for uniformity of maturity and are mechanically harvested using conventional small grain combines.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

=== Processing ===
The plants are allowed to stand until the stalks and seeds have dried out and the grain has reached a moisture content below 10%.
Handling involves [[threshing]] the seedheads from the [[chaff]] and [[winnowing]] the seed to remove the [[husk]]. Before storage, the seeds need to be dried in order to avoid [[germination]].<ref name="Lost crops" /> This was traditionally done manually, which is labour-intensive.<ref name="Bazile2014">{{cite journal |last1=Bazile |first1=Didier |last2=Martínez |first2=Enrique A. |last3=Fuentes |first3=Francisco |date=2014-12-02 |title=Diversity of quinoa in a biogeographical island: A review of constraints and potential from arid to temperate regions of Chile |url=https://www.notulaebotanicae.ro/index.php/nbha/article/view/9733 |journal=Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=289–298|doi=10.15835/nbha.42.2.9733 |bibcode=2014NBHAC..42.9733B }}</ref>