Editing Safflower (section)

==Cultivation==

===Climate===
Safflower prefers high temperatures and grows best at {{cvt|28|-|35|°C}}. It tolerates {{cvt|40|°C}}, but there are also some varieties which grow under very low temperatures.<ref name=":3">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4613-0433-3 |title=Food and Feed from Legumes and Oilseeds |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-4613-8050-4 |editor1-last=Nwokolo |editor1-first=E |editor2-first=J |editor2-last=Smartt }}</ref> Safflower is cultivated in different seasons: as a winter crop in south central India, as an early summer crop in California and as a mid-summer crop in the Northern Great Plains of the United States.<ref name=":4">{{cite book |doi=10.2135/1980.hybridizationofcrops.c38 |chapter=Safflower |title=Hybridization of Crop Plants |year=2015 |last1=Knowles |first1=P. F. |pages=535–548 |isbn=9780891185666 }}</ref> Minimum length of the growing season is 120 and 200 days for summer and winter cultivars, respectively.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Knowles |first1=P. F. |title=Safflower — production, processing and utilization |journal=Economic Botany |date=July 1955 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=273–299 |doi=10.1007/BF02859823 |s2cid=46373776 }}</ref> Plant performance is highly dependent on the different planting dates in terms of temperature and day length.<ref name=":4" /> Winter hard varieties only form a rosette in late fall and elongates in spring.<ref name=":4" /> In early stages, safflower tolerates humidity but after bud stage the danger of a Botrytis blight infestation increases<ref name=":4" />

Safflower is drought tolerant.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hussain |first1=M. Iftikhar |last2=Lyra |first2=Dionyssia-Angeliki |last3=Farooq |first3=Muhammad |last4=Nikoloudakis |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Khalid |first5=Nauman |title=Salt and drought stresses in safflower: a review |journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development |date=March 2016 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=4 |doi=10.1007/s13593-015-0344-8 |s2cid=18210727 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.14279/9052 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The tap root makes moisture from deep soil layers available.<ref name=":4" /> Additionally, this tolerance can also be explained by the higher water use efficiency compared to other oil crops such as linseed and mustard.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kar |first1=Gouranga |last2=Kumar |first2=Ashwani |last3=Martha |first3=M. |title=Water use efficiency and crop coefficients of dry season oilseed crops |journal=Agricultural Water Management |date=January 2007 |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=73–82 |doi=10.1016/j.agwat.2006.06.002 |bibcode=2007AgWM...87...73K }}</ref> Shortly before and during maximum flowering water requirements are the highest.<ref name=":4" /> Beside drought tolerance, all parts of the plant are sensitive to moisture in terms of diseases.<ref name=":4" /> In the case of excessive water supply, it is susceptible to root rot.<ref name=":4" /> Therefore, many varieties are not suitable in irrigated agriculture especially on soils with danger of waterlogging.<ref name=":5" />

Safflower tolerates wind and hail better than cereals.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Raising the Bar With Better Safflower Agronomy|url=https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/all-publications/publications/2011/01/raising-the-bar-with-better-safflower-agronomy|access-date=2020-11-08|website=Grains Research and Development Corporation|language=en-AU}}</ref> It stays erect and can retain the seeds in the head.<ref name=":4" />

===Soil===
Safflower prefers well-drained, neutral, fertile and deep soils.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" /> It can adapt well to soil pH (pH 5–8) and tolerates salinity.<ref name=":3" /> Safflower can be well grown on different soil types, with water supply as its main driving factor for suitability, depending on climate and irrigation, and the resulting different water regimes of the different soil types.<ref name=":4" /> Therefore, cultivation on shallow soils and especially on soils with danger of waterlogging is not suitable.<ref name=":5" /> The deep rooting promotes water and air movement and improves the [[soil quality]] for subsequent crops in a rotation.<ref name=":6" />

Nutrient requirements can be compared to wheat and barley, except nitrogen amendment should be increased by 20%.<ref name=":4" /> Therefore, soils with an adequate nitrogen supply are favorable.<ref name=":5" />

===Agricultural practice===
====Crop rotation and sowing====
Safflower is frequently grown in [[crop rotation]] with small [[grains]], [[fallow]] and annual [[legumes]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Safflower Production — Publications|url=https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/crops/safflower-production#:~:text=Safflower%20(Carthamus%20tinctorious%20L.),western%20part%20of%20the%20state|access-date=2020-11-06|website=www.ag.ndsu.edu| date=21 August 2019 }}</ref> Close rotation with crops susceptible to ''[[Sclerotinia sclerotiorum]]'' (e.g. [[sunflower]], [[canola]], [[mustard plant]] and [[pea]]) should be avoided. A four-year rotation is recommended to reduce disease pressure.<ref name=:2/>

Seeds should be sown in spring as early as {{cvt|4.5|°C}} soil temperature is exceeded, to take advantage of the full growing season. If wireworms were a problem in the field in previous seasons, a respective [[seed treatment]] is recommended. A planting depth between {{cvt|2.5|and|3.5|cm}} is optimal. Shallow seeding promotes uniform emergence resulting in a better stand.

Seeding rate recommendations are around {{cvt|17|-|33.5|kg/ha}} of live seed.<ref name=:2/> Where lower seeding rates promote branching, a longer flowering period and later maturity and higher rates promote thicker stands with a higher disease incidence. Sufficient moisture is necessary for germination. Usually, row spacing between {{cvt|15|and|25|cm}} are chosen using similar drill settings as recommended for [[barley]].<ref name=:2/>

====Management====
The total N recommendation is {{cvt|90|kg/ha}}. This should include credits based on previous crops and soil available N. For the latter, deeper positioned nutrients need to be taken into account as safflower will root deeper than small grains and therefore access nutrients unavailable to them.<ref name=:2/> Safflower growing in soils low in phosphorus need to be fertilized. Up to {{cvt|39|kg/ha}} of phosphate can be drill-applied safely.

A weed control program is essential when growing safflower as it is a poor competitor with weeds during the rosette stage.<ref name=:2/> Cultivation on fields with heavy infestation of perennial weeds is not recommended.

====Harvest====
Safflower is mature when most leaves have turned brown approximately 30 days after flowering.<ref name=:2/> Seeds should fall from the head when rubbed. Rain and high humidity after maturity may cause the seeds to sprout on the head.<ref name=:2/>

Harvesting is usually done using a small-grain [[combine harvester]].<ref name=:2/> Moisture in seeds should not exceed 8% to allow for a safe, long-term storage. Drying can be done similar to sunflower. Temperatures must not exceed {{convert|43|°C}} to prevent damage to the seed and ensure quality.

===Pests===
* Gram pod borer/capsule borer: ''[[Helicoverpa armigera]]''
* Safflower caterpillar: ''[[Condica capensis|Perigaea capensis]]''
* Safflower aphid: ''[[Uroleucon]] carthami''
* Capsule fly/safflower bud fly: ''[[Acanthiophilus]] helianthi''

===Diseases===
[[Alternaria carthami|''Alternaria'']] spp. present one of the most prevalent diseases causing losses as high as 50% in India.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-0356-2 |title=Technological Innovations in Major World Oil Crops, Volume 1 |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4614-0355-5 |s2cid=38884275 |editor1-last=Gupta |editor1-first=S.K }}</ref> In a field trial in Switzerland, ''[[Botrytis cinerea]]'' was the most prevalent disease.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2005-04-01|title=Distelöl aus Schweizer Saflor?|url=https://www.agrarforschungschweiz.ch/2005/04/disteloel-aus-schweizer-saflor/|access-date=2020-11-08|website=Agrarforschung Schweiz|language=de-DE}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Summary of plant diseases occurring on safflower without consideration of the geographical distribution and importance<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-5221-2 |title=Field Crop Diseases Handbook |year=1989 |last1=Nyvall |first1=Robert F. |isbn=978-1-4757-5223-6 |s2cid=38851230 }}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=October 2021}}
!Disease
!Cause
!Symptoms
!Control
|-
! colspan="4" |Bacterial diseases
|-
|Bacterial blight
|''[[Pseudomonas syringae]]''
|Dark, water soaked lesions on stems, leaf petioles and leaves. Red-brown necrotic spots on leaves. Severely infected plants die.
|No control reported.
|-
|Stem soft rot
|''[[Pectobacterium carotovorum|Erwinia carotovora]]''
|Wilting. Stems have a soft internal rot.
|No control reported.
|-
! colspan="4" |Fungal diseases
|-
|Alternia leaf spot
|''[[Alternaria carthami]]''
|Seeds may rot or seedlings damp off. Brown spots on the cotyldedones. If stem is infected plant collapses.
|Disease free seeds, fungicide treatment of seeds, resistant cultivar, hot water treatment of the seeds.
|-
|Botrytis head rot
|''[[Botrytis cinerea]]''
|Seed heads change color from a dark to light green followed by complete browning. Infected floral parts will be covered with a gray mold.
|No control reported.
|-
|Cercospora leaf spot
|''Cercospora carthami''
|At any stage of growth. Commonly round spots on lower leaves.
|No control necessary.
|-
|Colletrichum stem rot
|''Colletrichum orbiculare''
|Brown lesions, which can become necrotic occurring on the base of stems. Plant may die.
|No control necessary.
|-
|Fusarium wilt
|''[[Fusarium oxysporum]]''
|Yellowing leaves at one side of the plant beginning on the lower leaves followed by wilting. Young plants may die.
|Don't plant seeds from affected plants, fungicide treatment of seeds, rotation, resistant cultivar
|-
|Phytophtora root rot
|''[[Phytophthora cryptogea|Phytophtora cryptogea]], [[Phytophthora drechsleri|P. drechsleri]], [[Phytophthora cactorum|P. cactorum]]''
|At any stage of growth. Lower stems of seedlings collapse. On older plants leaves turn light green or yellow, then wild and die.
|Resistant cultivar, provide good drainage, avoid ponding of water
|-
|Powdery mildew
|''[[Erysiphe cichoracearum]]''
|Gray powdery mass of conidia on leaf surfaces
|No control reported.
|-
|Pythium root rot
|''[[Pythium splendens|Pythium spp.]]''
|Hypocotyl and first internode become water-soaked and soft with light brown discoloration. Later plant collapses
|Fungicide treatment of seeds, avoid irrigation
|-
|Ramularia leaf spot
|''Ramularia carthani''
|Round and regular spots in both sides of leaves. Yield and seed quality is affected.
|Rotation
|-
|Rhizocotina blight
|''Rhizocotina solani''
|Dark cortical lesions in the seedling stem. In advanced stages disease lesions extend up the stem. Root development is reduced
|Resistant cultivar
|-
|Rust
|''[[Puccinia carthami]]''
|Can occur at seedling phase or at foliage phase.
|Fungicide treatment of seeds, rotation, plow under residue, resistant cultivar
|-
|Sclerotinia stem rot
|''[[Sclerotinia sclerotiorum]]''
|Leaves turn yellow, wilt, turn brown and shrivel. White cottony growth on the stem. Can also affect heads. Plant may die.
|Don't plant safflower with other plants susceptible to ''S. sclerotiorum.''
|-
|Verticillum wilt
|''[[Verticillium wilt|Verticillum wilt]]''
|At any stage of growth. Leaves turn darker green than those of healthy plants. In older plants on lower leaves first. Unilateral leaf growth. Chlorotic areas on leaves.
|Normally minor disease. Do not rotate with cotton, peanuts and other susceptible crops.
|-
! colspan="4" |Mycoplasmal diseases
|-
|Safflower phyllody
|Safflower phyllody mycoplasma
|Abnormal axillary budding.
|Keep safflower fields free of the weed Carthamus tenuis L. because the leafhopper (vector) breeds in this weed
|-
! colspan="4" |Viral diseases
|-
|Chilli mosaic
|Chilli mosaic virus CMV
|Light and dark green patches are scattered over leaves
|No control reported.
|-
|Cucumber mosaic
|
|Light and dark green mosaic pattern primarily on upper leaves
|No control reported.
|-
|Severe mosaic
|[[Turnip mosaic virus]] (TuMV)
|Stunted plants with reduced leaf and seed head size. Seed ovules rot.
|No control reported.
|-
|Tobacco mosaic
|[[Tobacco mosaic virus]] (TMV)
|Blotchy light and dark green mosaic patterns on leaves.
|No control reported.
|}