Editing Scaffolding (section)

==Today==
[[File:Condominium in maintenance.jpg|thumb|A [[condominium (dwelling)|condominium]] in periodical (every 10-15 years) large scale repairing/maintenance in Japan under regulation. In most cases the entire building is covered by steel scaffolding and mesh for easy work and safety. Typically it continues 3-5 weeks per planned schedule.]]
[[File:Tokyo Sky Tree under construction 20090510.jpg|thumb|Scaffolding, 10 months after [[Tokyo Skytree]] construction start]]
[[File:Tokyo Sky Tree under construction 20090919-1.jpg|thumb|Scaffolding, 14 months after [[Tokyo Skytree]] construction start. Lower part entire tower surrounded with scaffolding, and upper part each ''X'' shaped tower structure covered a number of scaffoldings to work there.]]

The European Standard, BS EN 12811-1, specifies performance requirements and methods of structural and general design for access and working scaffolds. Requirements given are for scaffold structures that rely on the adjacent structures for stability. In general these requirements also apply to other types of working scaffolds.

The purpose of a working scaffold is to provide a safe working platform and access suitable for work crews to carry out their work. The European Standard sets out performance requirements for working scaffolds. These are substantially independent of the materials of which the scaffold is made. The standard is intended to be used as the basis for enquiry and design.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scaffolding-uk.co.uk/downloads/New+Scaffolding+Guidance+TG20.pdf|title=scaffolding-uk.co.uk|website=www.scaffolding-uk.co.uk|access-date=6 July 2017}}</ref>

===Materials===
The basic components of scaffolding are tubes, couplers and boards.
[[File:Cincinnati-scaffolding.jpg|thumb|left|Extensive scaffolding on a building in downtown [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]. This type of scaffolding is called pipe staging.]]
[[File:CantileverScaffold.jpg|thumb|left|Assembly of bamboo scaffolding cantilevered over a Hong Kong street]]
The basic lightweight tube scaffolding that became the standard and revolutionised scaffolding, becoming the baseline for decades, was invented and marketed in the mid-1950s.  With one basic 24 pound unit a scaffold of various sizes and heights could be assembled easily by a couple of labourers without the nuts or bolts previously needed.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Nt8DAAAAMBAJ&dq=1954+Popular+Mechanics&pg=PA103 "Light Weight Scaffolding Goes Together Without Nuts or Bolts."] ''Popular Mechanics'', February 1954, p. 103.</ref>

Tubes are usually made either of [[steel]] or [[aluminium]]. [[Composite material|Composite]] scaffolding uses filament-wound tubes of [[glass fibre]] in a [[nylon]] or [[polyester]] matrix. Because of the high cost of composite tube, it is usually only used when there is a risk from overhead electric cables that cannot be isolated. Steel tubes are either 'black' or galvanised. The tubes come in a variety of lengths and a standard outside [[diameter]] of 48.3&nbsp;mm. (1.5 [[Nominal Pipe Size|NPS]] [[Pipe (material)|pipe]]). The chief difference between the two types of metal tubes is the lower weight of aluminium tubes (1.7&nbsp;kg/m as opposed to 4.4&nbsp;kg/m). Aluminium tube is more flexible and has a lower resistance to stress. Tubes are generally bought in 6.3 m lengths and can then be cut down to certain typical sizes. Most large companies will brand their tubes with their name and address in order to deter theft.

Boards provide a working surface for scaffold users. They are seasoned [[wood]] and come in three thicknesses (38&nbsp;mm (usual), 50&nbsp;mm and 63&nbsp;mm) are a standard width (225&nbsp;mm) and are a maximum of 3.9 m long. The board ends are protected either by metal plates called hoop irons or sometimes nail plates, which often have the company name stamped into them. Timber scaffold boards in the UK should comply with the requirements of BS 2482. As well as timber, steel or aluminium decking is used, as well as [[laminate]] boards. In addition to the boards for the working platform, there are sole boards which are placed beneath the scaffolding if the surface is soft or otherwise suspect, although ordinary boards can also be used. Another solution, called a scaffpad, is made from a rubber base with a base plate moulded inside; these are desirable for use on uneven ground since they adapt, whereas sole boards may split and have to be replaced.

[[File:Scaffold Pole Section.jpg|thumb|A short section of steel scaffold tube]]
Couplers are the fittings which hold the tubes together. The most common are called scaffold couplers, and there are three basic types: ''right-angle couplers'', ''putlog couplers'' and ''swivel couplers''. To join tubes end-to-end ''joint pins'' (also called spigots) or ''sleeve couplers'' are used. Only right angle couplers and swivel couplers can be used to fix tube in a 'load-bearing connection'. Single couplers are not load-bearing couplers and have no design capacity.

Other common scaffolding components include base plates, [[ladder]]s, [[rope]]s, anchor ties, reveal ties, gin wheels, sheeting, etc.
Most companies will adopt a specific colour to paint the scaffolding with, in order that quick visual identification can be made in case of theft. All components that are made from metal can be painted but items that are wooden should never be painted as this could hide defects.
Despite the metric measurements given, many scaffolders measure tubes and boards in imperial units, with tubes from 21 feet down and boards from 13&nbsp;ft down.

[[Bamboo scaffolding]] is widely used in [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Knight |first=Joshua |date=2023-09-05 |title=The Craft of Bamboo Scaffolding |url=https://altascaffolding.com.au/history-of-bamboo-scaffolding/ |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=ALTA Scaffolding |language=en-AU}}</ref> with [[nylon]] straps tied into knots as couplers.<ref name=bd-gov-hk-1>{{cite web|title=Guidelines on the Design and Construction of Bamboo Scaffolds|url=http://www.bd.gov.hk/english/documents/code/GDCBS.pdf|website=www.bd.gov.hk|publisher=Hong Kong Buildings Department|access-date=12 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212095050/http://www.bd.gov.hk/english/documents/code/GDCBS.pdf|archive-date=2015-02-12|url-status = dead}}</ref> In India, bamboo or other wooden scaffolding is also mostly used, with poles being lashed together using ropes made from coconut hair ([[coir]]).

===Basic scaffolding===
The key elements of the scaffolding are ''the standard'', ''ledger'' and ''transoms''. The standards, also called uprights, are the vertical tubes that transfer the entire weight of the structure to the ground where they rest on a square ''base plate'' to spread the load. The base plate has a shank in its centre to hold the tube and is sometimes pinned to a ''sole board''. Ledgers are horizontal tubes which connect between the standards. Transoms rest upon the ledgers at right angles. ''Main transoms'' are placed next to the standards, they hold the standards in place and provide support for boards; ''intermediate transoms'' are those placed between the main transoms to provide extra support for boards. In Canada this style is referred to as "English". "American" has the transoms attached to the standards and is used less but has certain advantages in some situations.

[[File:Scaffolding, Tretyakovsky Proyezd, Moscow, 03 08 05.jpg|thumb|left|Scaffolding in [[Tretyakovsky Proyezd]], Moscow]]
As well as the tubes at right angles there are ''cross braces'' to increase rigidity, these are placed diagonally from ledger to ledger, next to the standards to which they are fitted. If the braces are fitted to the ledgers they are called ledger braces. To limit sway a ''facade brace'' is fitted to the face of the scaffold every 30 metres or so at an angle of 35°-55° running right from the base to the top of the scaffold and fixed at every level.

Of the couplers previously mentioned, right-angle couplers join ledgers or transoms to standards, putlog or single couplers join board bearing transoms to ledgers - Non-board bearing transoms should be fixed using a right-angle coupler. Swivel couplers are to connect tubes at any other angle. The actual joints are staggered to avoid occurring at the same level in neighbouring standards.

[[File:scaff t 02.png|thumb|Basic scaffold dimensioning terms. No boards, bracing or couplers shown]]
The spacings of the basic elements in the scaffold are fairly standard. For a general purpose scaffold the maximum bay length is 2.1 m, for heavier work the bay size is reduced to 2 or even 1.8 m while for inspection a bay width of up to 2.7 m is allowed.

The scaffolding width is determined by the width of the boards, the minimum width allowed{{Where|date=July 2011}} is 600&nbsp;mm but a more typical four-board scaffold would be 870&nbsp;mm wide from standard to standard. More heavy-duty scaffolding can require 5, 6 or even up to 8 boards width. Often an ''inside board'' is added to reduce the gap between the inner standard and the structure.

The lift height, the spacing between ledgers, is 2 m, although the base lift can be up to 2.7 m. The diagram above also shows a kicker lift, which is just 150&nbsp;mm or so above the ground.

Transom spacing is determined by the thickness of the boards supported, 38&nbsp;mm boards require a transom spacing of no more than 1.2 m while a 50&nbsp;mm board can stand a transom spacing of 2.6 m and 63&nbsp;mm boards can have a maximum span of 3.25 m. The minimum overhang for all boards is 50&nbsp;mm and the maximum overhang is no more than 4x the thickness of the board.

===Foundations===
Good foundations are essential. Often scaffold frameworks will require more than simple base plates to safely carry and spread the load. Scaffolding can be used without base plates on concrete or similar hard surfaces, although base plates are always recommended. For surfaces like pavements or tarmac base plates are necessary. For softer or more doubtful surfaces sole boards must be used, beneath a single standard a sole board should be at least {{convert|1000|cm2|in2}} with no dimension less than {{convert|220|mm|in}}, the thickness must be at least {{convert|35|mm|in}}. For heavier duty scaffold much more substantial baulks set in concrete can be required. On uneven ground steps must be cut for the base plates, a minimum step size of around {{convert|450|mm|in}} is recommended. A working platform requires certain other elements to be safe. They must be close-boarded, have double guard rails and toe and stop boards. Safe and secure access must also be provided.

[[File:scaff wp 01.png|Scaffolding showing required protection of a working platform with maximum dimensions. Butt-board not visible. No couplers shown|thumb|511x511px|center]]

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===Ties===
[[File:Holy Trinity Vladimir.jpg|left|thumb|The Holy Trinity Church in [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir]], with scaffolding wrapped in safety mesh]]

Scaffolds are only rarely independent structures. To provide stability for a scaffolding (at left) framework ties are generally fixed to the adjacent building/fabric/steelwork.

General practice is to attach a tie every 4 m on alternate lifts (traditional scaffolding). Prefabricated System scaffolds require structural connections at all frames - i.e. 2–3 m centres (tie patterns must be provided by the System manufacturer/supplier). The ties are coupled to the scaffold as close to the junction of standard and ledger (node point) as possible. Due to recent regulation changes, scaffolding ties must support +/- loads (tie/butt loads) and lateral (shear) loads.

Due to the different nature of structures there is a variety of different ties to take advantage of the opportunities.

''Through ties'' are put through structure openings such as windows. A vertical inside tube crossing the opening is attached to the scaffold by a transom and a crossing horizontal tube on the outside called a bridle tube. The gaps between the tubes and the structure surfaces are packed or wedged with timber sections to ensure a solid fit.

''Box ties'' are used to attach the scaffold to suitable pillars or comparable features. Two additional transoms are put across from the lift on each side of the feature and are joined on both sides with shorter tubes called tie tubes. When a complete box tie is impossible a l-shaped ''lip tie'' can be used to hook the scaffold to the structure, to limit inward movement an additional transom, a ''butt transom'', is placed hard against the outside face of the structure.

Sometimes it is possible to use ''anchor ties'' (also called ''bolt ties''), these are ties fitted into holes drilled in the structure. A common type is a ring bolt with an expanding wedge which is then tied to a node point.

[[File:Scaffolding Waverley Station.jpg|thumb|Scaffolding by Balfour & Beatty during refurbishment of the Waverley Station roof, Edinburgh 2011]]
The least 'invasive' tie is a ''reveal tie''. These use an opening in the structure but use a tube wedged horizontally in the opening. The reveal tube is usually held in place by a reveal screw pin (an adjustable threaded bar) and protective packing at either end. A transom tie tube links the reveal tube to the scaffold. Reveal ties are not well regarded, they rely solely on friction and need regular checking so it is not recommended that more than half of all ties be reveal ties.

If it is not possible to use a safe number of ties ''rakers'' can be used. These are single tubes attached to a ledger extending out from the scaffold at an angle of less than 75° and securely founded. A transom at the base then completes a triangle back to the base of the main scaffold.