Editing Siwi language (section)

==Grammar==
The basic [[word order]] of Siwi is subject-verb-object,<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Schiattarella|2016|p=60}}</ref> as in:

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=siz
|akúḅḅi la yušas náčču i támẓa
|boy not he.gave.her food to ogress
|'The boy didn't give food to the ogress.'<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|p=216}}</ref>
}}

Prepositions precede the noun phrase. Within the noun phrase, numerals (except, sometimes, 'one') precede the noun quantified,<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|pp=131–133}}</ref> while other modifiers follow the head noun. Demonstratives always follow adjectives or possessive suffixes, and may even follow relative clauses,<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|pp=146–147}}</ref> e.g.:

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=siz
|akbər ə́nnəw aməllal dawok
|robe my white that
|'that white robe of mine'}}

===Nouns===
Siwi nouns are specified for [[Grammatical gender|gender]] (masculine or feminine) and [[Grammatical number|number]] (singular or plural; on the occasional occurrence of duals, see [[#Numerical system|Numerical system]] below). Most nouns incorporate a fixed prefix, usually ''a-'' for masculine singular (e.g., {{transliteration|siz|asen}} 'tooth'), ''i-'' for masculine plural (e.g., {{transliteration|siz|isenən}} 'teeth'), ''ta-'' for feminine singular (e.g., {{transliteration|siz|taṣṛəṃt}} 'intestine'), ''ti-'' for feminine plural (e.g., {{transliteration|siz|tiṣəṛṃen}} 'intestines').<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|p=62}}</ref> Arabic loans often start with invariant ''(ə)l-'', usually assimilating to a following coronal, e.g., {{transliteration|siz|ləqləm}} 'pen', {{transliteration|siz|ddhan}} 'oil'.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|p=78}}</ref> Many nouns also incorporate a suffix, usually feminine singular ''-t'', masculine plural ''-ən'', feminine plural ''-en'', as seen above; Arabic loans often show a feminine singular suffix ''-ət'' or ''-a'', and a feminine plural suffix ''-at'' or {{transliteration|siz|-iyyat}}, e.g., {{transliteration|siz|ɣṛaḅa}} 'raven' vs. {{transliteration|siz|ɣṛaḅiyyat}} 'ravens'.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|p=74}}</ref> Pluralization is often also marked on the stem itself by internal changes, e.g., {{transliteration|siz|azidi}} 'jackal' vs. {{transliteration|siz|izida}} 'jackals', {{transliteration|siz|ašṭiṭ}} 'bird' vs. {{transliteration|siz|išəṭṭan}} 'birds'.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|pp=62–63}}</ref>

In a noun either the last syllable or the second-to-last (penultimate) is [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed]], depending on context. The factors determining stress in the noun remain a matter of debate. According to Souag,<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|pp=80–82}}</ref> stress depends essentially on definiteness: definite nouns receive penultimate stress, while indefinites are stressed on the last syllable. Schiattarella<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Schiattarella|2017}}</ref> argues that the situation is somewhat more complicated: notably, locatives and right detached nouns receive accent on the last syllable, while left detached nouns are stressed on the penultimate.

Unlike most larger Berber languages, Siwi has no [[Construct state#Berber|state]] distinction: a noun takes the same form whether used as subject or as object.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Laoust|1932|p=97}}</ref>

===Adjectives===
Siwi adjectives [[Agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with their heads (or their referents) in gender and number, using a subset of the same affixes given above for nouns; for example:<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|p=91}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! colspan="2" | 
! small
! mute
|-
! rowspan="2" | masc
! singular
| {{lang|siz|aħəkkik}}
| {{lang|siz|ləbkəm}}
|-
! plural
| {{lang|siz|iħəkkikən}}
| {{lang|siz|lbəkmən}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | fem
! singular
| {{lang|siz|taħəkkəkt}}
| {{lang|siz|tləbkəmt}}
|-
! plural
| {{lang|siz|tiħəkkiken}}
| {{lang|siz|təlbəkmen}}
|}

However, agreement is not always complete. Feminine plural nouns often show masculine plural agreement.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|p=92}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Schiattarella|2016|p=42}}</ref>

Adjectives may be marked with a suffix ''-a'',<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Vycichy|2005|p=213}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|pp=93–94}}</ref> whose function, possibly aspectual, has not yet been conclusively established.

Gradable adjectives with no more than three root consonants form an invariant comparative based on the consonantal template ''(ə)CCəC'', originally borrowed from Arabic: thus {{lang|siz|aħəkkik}} 'small' yields {{lang|siz|əħkək}} 'smaller', {{lang|siz|agzal}} 'short' yields {{lang|siz|gzəl}} 'smaller', {{lang|siz|aẓəy}} 'bitter' yields {{lang|siz|ẓya}} 'more bitter'.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Walker|1921|p=212}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Vycichl|2005|p=212}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|pp=102–104}}</ref> Adding a suffix {{lang|siz|-hŭm}} to this in turn yields the superlative.

===Demonstratives===
Demonstratives agree with their referent in number and, if singular, in gender; medial demonstratives also agree with the addressee, a typologically unusual type of [[allocutive agreement]].<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2014}}</ref> The pronominal demonstratives are as follows:
* 'this' (proximal): m. {{lang|siz|wa / waya}}, f. {{lang|siz|ta / taya}}, pl. {{transliteration|siz|wi / wiyya}}
* 'this/that' (medial, speaking to a man): m. {{lang|siz|wok}}, f. {{lang|siz|tok}}, pl. {{transliteration|siz|wiyyok}}
* 'this/that' (medial, speaking to a woman): m. {{lang|siz|wom}}, f. {{lang|siz|tom}}, pl. {{transliteration|siz|wiyyom}}
* 'this/that' (medial, speaking to a group): m. {{lang|siz|werwən}}, f. {{lang|siz|terwən}}, pl. {{transliteration|siz|wiyyerwən}}
* 'that' (distal): m. {{lang|siz|wih}}, f. {{lang|siz|tih}}, pl. {{lang|siz|widin}}

When a demonstrative modifies a noun phrase, it takes a prefix ''da-'' (''ta-'' for feminine singular). To form a [[Presentative (grammar)|presentative]] ('here is...'), it instead takes a prefix ''ɣ-''. Placeholders ('whatsit', 'whatchamacallit') use the singular distal forms plus ''-in'' ({{transliteration|siz|wihin}}, {{transliteration|siz|tihin}}).

Demonstrative adverbials are based on the same series minus referent agreement markers: proximal ''-a / -aya'', medial ''-ok / -om / -erwən'', distal ''-ih''. Locative adverbs ('here', 'there') prefix to these ''gd-'' (or approximate locative ''ss-''), while adverbs of manner ('like this', 'like that') prefix ''ams-''.

===Personal pronouns===
Siwi personal pronouns distinguish number and (in the singular only) gender. 
Siwi is a [[pro-drop language]], so the use of independent forms is relatively limited; instead, agreement markers or referential suffixes usually suffice to make pronominal reference unambiguous. The following table gives the system:<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|p=46}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|+ Siwi pronouns
! !! Independent !! Direct object !! Object of preposition / possessor of kinship term !! Indirect object !! Possessive !! Object of "because of" !! Subject agreement !! Imperative subject agreement
|-
!1sg.
|{{lang|siz|niš}}||''-i''||V''-ø'' / C''-i''||''-i''||{{lang|siz|nnəw}}||''-i''||''-ax / -a / -ɣ- / -ʕ-'' ||
|-
!2sg.m.
|{{lang|siz|šəkk}}||''-ek''||''-k''||''-ak''||{{lang|siz|nnək}}||''-ăk''||''-aṭ / -ṭ-''||ø
|-
!2s.f.
|{{lang|siz|šəmm}}||''-em''||''-m''||''-am''||{{lang|siz|nnəm}}||''-ki''||''-aṭ / -ṭ-''||ø
|-
!3sg.m.
|{{lang|siz|nətta}}||''-a'' / Aff-''t''||''-s''||''-as''||{{lang|siz|nnəs}}||''-ăh''||''y-''||
|-
!3sg.f.
|{{lang|siz|ntatət}}||''-et'' / Aff-''tət''||''-s''||''-as''||{{lang|siz|nnəs}}||''-ha''||''t-''||
|-
!1pl.
|{{lang|siz|nišni / nični}}||''-anax''||''-nax''||''-anax''||{{lang|siz|nnax}}||''-na''||''n-''||''(n-...-wət)''
|-
!2pl.
|{{lang|siz|nknəṃ}}||''-ewən''||''-wən''||''-awən''||{{lang|siz|nwən}}||''-kŭm''||''-m''||''-wət / -m-''
|-
!3pl.
|{{lang|siz|ntnən}}||''-en'' / Aff-''tən''||''-sən''||''-asən''||{{lang|siz|nsən}}||''-hŭm''||''y-...-n''||
|}

Some subject agreement markers take different forms before indirect object agreement markers, indicated above with dashes on both sides (e.g., ''-m-''). 3rd person direct object suffixes take different forms depending on whether they follow another affix or directly follow the stem. After 1Sg subject agreement, second person direct objects are expressed with the corresponding independent pronouns. The special series for 'because of' ({{lang|siz|msabb}}/{{lang|siz|mišan}}) is borrowed from Arabic.

===Verbs===
Siwi verbs agree in person, number, and (when singular) gender with their subjects and their indirect objects,<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2015}}</ref> and take suffixes marking pronominal objects. The verb 'open', for example, is conjugated in the perfective as follows:<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Vycichl|2005|p=226}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! colspan="2" | 
! singular
! plural
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person
| {{lang|siz|fətk-ax}} I opened
| {{lang|siz|nə-ftək}} we opened
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| {{lang|siz|fətk-aṭ}} you (sg.) opened
| {{lang|siz|fətk-əm}} you (pl.) opened
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! masc
| {{lang|siz|yə-ftək}} he opened
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|siz|yə-ftk-ən}} they opened
|-
! fem
| {{lang|siz|tə-ftək}} she opened
|}

In some cases, plural nouns trigger feminine singular agreement.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Schiattarella|2016|p=52}}</ref>

The order of pronominal affixes on the verb is as follows: (subject)-stem-(subject)-(indirect object)-(direct object), e.g., {{transliteration|siz|y-uš-as-t i talti}} 'he gave it (m.) to the woman'.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Schiattarella|2016|p=31}}</ref>

Siwi verbs are also marked for [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[grammatical mood|mood]]. The basic stem is used in the imperative and in the irrealis/aorist; the latter normally takes a prefix ''ga-'' (preceding agreement suffixes), or {{transliteration|siz|(əd)da-}} for suggestives. The perfective form is identical to the stem for most verbs, but in a few is marked by a variable suffixed vowel. The imperfective is formed from the stem by a variety of morphological strategies, including gemination of the second consonant, ''t'' prefixation, and insertion of an ''a''. A special perfect/resultative (unusual within Berber) is formed from the perfective by suffixing ''-a'' to a fully conjugated perfective verb including any suffixes, changing ''ə'' in the last syllable to ''i''; the same procedure, applied to an imperfective verb, yields the meaning 'while'.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Souag|2013|pp=182–199}}</ref> Thus, for example, from the verb {{lang|siz|ukəl}} 'walk' Siwi derives:<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Schiattarella|2016|p=46}}</ref>

* perfective {{lang|siz|y-ukəl}} 'he walked'
* resultative {{lang|siz|y-ukil-a}} 'he has walked'
* imperfective {{lang|siz|i-takəl}} 'he walks, he is walking, he was walking'
* imperfective+a {{lang|siz|i-takil-a}} 'while he is/was walking'
* ga+aorist {{lang|siz|g-(y)-ukəl}} 'he will walk, he would walk'
* ədda+aorist {{lang|siz|ədd-(y)-ukəl}} 'let him walk!'

Unlike many Berber languages, Siwi has no special verbal morphology for negation; in all aspects and moods, verbs are simply negated with the preverbal particle {{lang|siz|la}}. The prohibitive ('do not'), however, uses the imperfective form of the verb, unlike the imperative which uses the basic stem.