Editing Soukous (section)

===1960s and 1970s===

==== Europe and the United States ====
[[File:Rochereau performing at Paris Olympia.jpg|thumb|[[Tabu Ley Rochereau]] performing at the [[Paris Olympia]] in 1970]]
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, soukous became a predominant popular African dance style across Africa and into the continent's diaspora in Belgium, France, the UK, and the United States.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ngoye |first=Achille |date=1995 |title=Le soukouss des Zaïrois en Europe |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/homig_1142-852x_1995_num_1191_1_2536 |journal=Hommes & Migrations |volume=1191 |issue=1 |pages=42–47 |doi=10.3406/homig.1995.2536}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Winders |first=James A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqoYDAAAQBAJ |title=Paris Africain: Rhythms of the African Diaspora |date=5 June 2007 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |isbn=978-0-230-60207-6 |location=New York, New York State, United States |pages=57 |language=en}}</ref> During this period, a surge of Zairean musicians moved to Belgium and France, primarily driven by the hegemony of the [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] regime, which propagated propaganda songs as part of the ''[[Authenticité (Zaire)|Authenticité]]'' campaign to foster a sense of national identity and pride through ideological slogans of the [[one-party state]], the [[Popular Movement of the Revolution|Movement Populaire de la Révolution]] (MPR).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ndaliko |first=Chérie Rivers |date=March 2020 |title=Mobutu's Ghost: A Case for the Urgency of History in Cultural Aid |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/40543/chapter-abstract/347879247?redirectedFrom=fulltext# |access-date=11 May 2024 |website=academic.oup.com |publication-place=Oxford, England, United Kingdom}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L0OKDwAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+mobutu+authenticity&pg=PT1157 |title=The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture |date=26 February 2019 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-5063-5337-1 |editor-last=Sturman |editor-first=Janet |location=Thousand Oaks, California, United States |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+mobutu+authenticity&pg=RA1-PA201 |title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517055-9 |editor-last=Appiah |editor-first=Anthony |location=Oxford, England, United Kingdom |pages=201 |language=en |editor-last2=Gates |editor-first2=Henry Louis}}</ref> This [[Ideocracy|state ideological]] shift gradually infiltrated Zairean popular music, with popular musicians embracing the regime's ideology and documenting its achievements. Mobutu's encouragement of urban musicians paralleled [[Mao Zedong]]'s approach in [[China]], where music served the revolution.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |last=Wa Mukuna |first=Kazadi |date=7 December 2014 |title=A brief history of popular music in DRC |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/brief-history-popular-music-drc |access-date=13 May 2024 |website=Music In Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-OPNEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+artists+praise+mobutu&pg=PA301 |title=Africa: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes] |date=2015-12-14 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-666-9 |editor-last=Jean-Jacques |editor-first=Daniel |location=Santa Barbara, California, United States |pages=301 |language=en |editor-last2=Falola |editor-first2=Toyin}}</ref> As a result, the [[globalization]] of Congolese urban music expanded, leading to a massive exodus of musicians to African and European countries, most notably [[Belgium]] and [[France]].<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":26">{{Cite journal |last=Perullo |first=Alex |date=2008 |title=Rumba in the City of Peace: Migration and the Cultural Commodity of Congolese Music in Dar es Salaam, 1968-1985 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174590 |journal=Ethnomusicology |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=296–323 |doi=10.2307/20174590 |issn=0014-1836 |jstor=20174590|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Many youths with limited employment options gravitated towards a music career, with Kinshasa's soukous scene becoming an attractive choice. However, some faced obstacles in establishing themselves in France.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rand |first=Jonas |date=17 December 2016 |title=Congolese Music, 1970s |url=https://saheltothecape.wordpress.com/2016/12/17/congolese-music-1970s/ |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=From the Sahel to the Cape |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Against this backdrop, [[Tabu Ley Rochereau]] made history as the first African artist invited to perform at Paris's [[Olympia (Paris)|Olympia Hall]] in December 1970, where he attracted few connoisseurs and set a precedent for subsequent Zairean musicians.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=White |first=Bob W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsLMW6gCULgC |title=Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire |date=6 June 2008 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-8926-2 |location=Durham, North Carolina, United States |pages=114 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bf0DAQAAIAAJ&q=Tabu+Ley+Rochereau+Paris+Olympia |title=Africa Events: Volume 1 |date=1985 |publisher=Dar es Salaam Limited |location=Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam Region, Tanzania |pages=60–61 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Barlow |first1=Sean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BCzaAAAAMAAJ&q=Tabu%20Ley%20Rochereau%20Paris%20Olympia |title=Afropop!: An Illustrated Guide to Contemporary African Music |last2=Eyre |first2=Banning |last3=Vartoogian |first3=Jack |date=1995 |publisher=Chartwell Books |isbn=978-0-7858-0443-7 |location=New York, New York State, United States |pages=28 |language=en}}</ref> [[Abeti Masikini]] followed suit, becoming the second Zairean and the first female soukous artist to grace the Olympia stage alongside [[Mireille Mathieu]] and [[Hugues Aufray]].<ref name=":24">{{Cite web |title=musicMe: Biographie de Abeti Maskini |url=https://www.musicme.com/Abeti-Masikini/biographie/ |access-date=2023-11-14 |website=musicMe |language=Fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref><ref name=":52">{{Cite web |date=2012-06-19 |title=Abeti Masikini Finant Elisabeth 1954 -1994 |url=https://www.universrumbacongolaise.com/artistes/abeti-masikini/ |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=Universrumbacongolaise.com |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bergman |first=Billy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzLaAAAAMAAJ&q=abeti+masikini+1974 |title=African Pop: Goodtime Kings |publisher=Blandford |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7137-1551-4 |pages=51 |language=en}}</ref> This momentum continued with Masikini's performance at [[Carnegie Hall]] in New York on 11 March 1974, setting the stage for burgeoning singers, [[griot]]s, and other lesser-known divas from Africa.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":25">{{Cite news |last=Fraser |first=C. Gerald |date=1974-03-11 |title=African Singer, Too, Got A Start in Church Choir |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/03/11/archives/african-singer-too-got-a-start-in-church-choir.html |access-date=2023-11-16 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Concurrently, the M'Bamina orchestra ventured to Paris before seeking audiences in [[Italy]] in 1972.<ref name=":1" /> Pablo 'Porthos' Lubadika arrived in Paris in 1979 with singer [[Sam Mangwana]] through [[Lomé]], Togo, after recording under the name the African All Stars. Mangwana, having collaborated with nearly every prominent figure in Congo, relocated to [[Abidjan]] in 1978 to pursue better opportunities. He formed a new band of Congolese economic exiles, who became regulars in Parisian session bands.<ref name=":28"/> The African All Stars' breakout hit, "Suzana Coulibaly," released on 31 December 1979, featured "simple, repetitive rhythms" at a faster tempo than traditional Congolese rumba.<ref name=":28"/> Mangwana's exclamation "soukous sophistiqué" as Lokassa Ya M'Bongo and [[Rigo Star]] crafted a "rock-solid" sebene solidified the record's direction, initiating an independent musical movement targeting the international market. As their influence grew, the African All Stars adapted the fast, rough stylings of youth bands in Brazzaville and Kinshasa, introducing this new tempo globally.<ref name=":28"/>

==== Africa ====
Across Africa, soukous dominated [[East Africa]]n nightclubs' dance floors and played a pivotal role in shaping virtually all the styles of contemporary [[African popular music]], including [[benga music]], [[muziki wa dansi]], [[Kidandali]], [[Igbo highlife]], [[palm-wine music]], [[taarab]], and inspiring the establishment of approximately 350 youth orchestras in Kinshasa, paving the way for new traditional dances, rhythmic patterns, and bands.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 February 2014 |title=Zambia: Origins of Rhumba Music |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201402230048.html |access-date=3 April 2025 |website=[[Times of Zambia]] |publication-place=Ndola, Zambia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Vietnam |date=31 December 2021 |title=The Secrets And Legend of Rumba, "The Soul Of The Congolese" |url=https://vietnamtimes.org.vn/the-secrets-and-legend-of-rumba-the-soul-of-the-congolese-38972.html#:~:text=The%20lively%20cavacha,%20a%20dance,Shama%20Shama,%20influencing%20Kenyan%20musicians. |access-date=3 April 2025 |website=Vietnam Times |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XEeTAgAAQBAJ |title=The Garland Handbook of African Music |date=2 April 2010 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781135900014 |editor-last=Stone |editor-first=Ruth M. |location=Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom |pages=132–133}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Messager |date=2009-08-18 |title=Les années 1970: L'âge d'or de la musique congolaise |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/article-35012968.html |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":6" />
[[File:Congolese band Zaïko Langa Langa in 1971.jpg|thumb|[[Zaïko Langa Langa]] performing in 1971. From left to right: Beaudoin Mitsho, Meridjo Belobi (behind), Enoch Zamuangana (behind), Teddy Sukami, [[Papa Wemba]], Damien Ndebo (behind), [[Evoloko Jocker]], [[Félix Manuaku Waku]]|187x187px]]
As sociopolitical turmoil in Zaire deteriorated in the 1970s, a great number of musicians ventured to [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]] and [[Uganda]], where orchestras sustained themselves through record sales and consistent stage performances. By the early 1970s, several Congolese bands had taken up the soukous beat in Kenyan nightclubs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+in+London&pg=PA849 |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture |date=2008-07-29 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |pages=849 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last=Trillo |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6dEW14KykIC |title=The Rough Guide to Kenya |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2016 |isbn=9781848369733 |location=London, United Kingdom |pages=598}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=2020-05-05 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York City, New York State |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":73">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvtHAox4T5EC |title=Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora |publisher=State University of New York Press |date=June 2012 |isbn=9781438442174 |editor-last=Valdés |editor-first=Vanessa K. |location=Albany, New York City, New York State |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref name=":84">{{Cite news |last=Hodgkinson |first=Will |date=8 July 2010 |title=How African music made it big in Colombia |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/jul/08/columbia-african-music-palenque |access-date=23 August 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The vivacious [[cavacha]] dance craze, propagated by bands like [[Zaïko Langa Langa]] and Orchestra Shama Shama, swept across East and [[Central Africa]], exert influence on Kenyan musicians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adieu |first=Verckys |date=2022-10-19 |title=congolese rumba |url=https://cavacha.wordpress.com/tag/congolese-rumba/ |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":29">{{Cite web |last=Mutara |first=Eugene |date=29 April 2008 |title=Rwanda: Memories Through Congolese Music |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200804290721.html |access-date=27 July 2024 |website=[[The New Times (Rwanda)|The New Times]]}}</ref> The utilization of the cavacha rhythm, typically played on the [[snare drum]] or [[Hi-hat|high-hat]], became emblematic of the Zairean sound in [[Nairobi]] and was frequently adopted by regional bands. Prominent Congolese rumba [[Swahili language|Swahili]] bands in Nairobi formed around [[Tanzania]]n groups like [[Simba Wanyika]], giving rise to offshoots like [[Les Wanyika]] and Super Wanyika Stars.<ref name=":12"/><ref name=":32">{{Cite web |date=19 October 2022 |title=congolese rumba |url=https://cavacha.wordpress.com/tag/congolese-rumba/ |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits}}</ref><ref name=":23"/> [[Maroon Commandos]], a Nairobi-based ensemble, assimilated the soukous style while infusing their distinctive artistic imprint. [[Japanese people|Japanese]] students in Kenya, including Rio Nakagawa, developed a fondness for Congolese music, with Rio eventually spearheading Yoka Choc Nippon, a Japanese-conceived Congolese rumba band.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Mwamba |first=Bibi |date=7 February 2022 |title=L'influence de la rumba congolaise sur la scène musicale mondiale |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/magazine/linfluence-de-la-rumba-congolaise-sur-la-scene-musicale-mondiale |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Music in Africa |language=fr}}</ref>
[[File:A posture of Pepe Kalle in 1978.jpg|left|thumb|294x294px|A posture of [[Pépé Kallé]] in 1978]]
[[File:Gaby Lita Bembo jouant du piano à la fin des années 1970.jpg|thumb|198x198px|[[Orchestre Stukas|Gaby Lita Bembo]] playing piano in the 1970s]]
Virgin Records produced albums by the Tanzanian-Zairean [[Orchestra Makassy]] and the Kenya-based [[Orchestra Super Mazembe]]. The Swahili song "Shauri Yako" ("It's your problem") gained widespread acclaim in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Another influential Zairean ensemble, [[Les Mangelepa]], relocated to Kenya and achieved immense popularity across East Africa. Zairean singer [[Samba Mapangala]] and his band Orchestra Virunga, based in Nairobi, released the [[LP record|LP]] ''Malako'', which became a pioneering release in Europe's emerging world music scene.<ref name=":29" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Shauri Yako — Orchestra Super Mazembe |url=https://www.last.fm/music/Orchestra+Super+Mazembe/Shauri+Yako |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=Last.fm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=congo in kenya |url=http://muzikifan.com/shika.html |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=muzikifan.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nyanga |first=Caroline |title=Stars who came for music and found eternal resting place |url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/standard-entertainment/article/2001370770/stars-who-came-for-music-and-found-eternal-resting-place |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=The Standard}}</ref> Meanwhile, between 1976 and 1977, [[Sam Mangwana]] and the African All Stars dominated the dance halls of Kinshasa with records produced in [[West Africa]], which were different from the sounds produced in the two-track studios of Kinshasa. Following this, there was a migration to [[Lomé]] and [[Cotonou]], followed by Franco Luambo's departure to Belgium.<ref name=":1" />

In [[Nigeria]], soukous became widespread due to the transmission of Zairean music through Radio Brazzaville, where audiences were introduced to material from ''Zaire Vol. 6'' (Soundpoint SOP 044, 1978).<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |last=Beadle |first=John |date=18 August 2010 |title=From Congo via Nigeria |url=https://likembe.blogspot.com/2010/08/from-congo-via-nigeria.html |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=Likembe |publication-place=Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1978 |title=Various – Music From Zaire Vol. 6 |url=https://www.discogs.com/release/11788853-Various-Music-From-Zaire-Vol-6 |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=Discogs |publication-place=Beaverton, Oregon, United States}}</ref> Soukous catalyzed the emergence of a distinct genre of guitar-based [[Igbo highlife]] music, exemplified by musicians like [[Oliver De Coque]], the [[Oriental Brothers International]], and their various imitators and followers.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=14 April 2021 |title=Google Honors Oliver de Coque with a Doodle on his 74th Posthumous Birthday |url=https://www.bellanaija.com/2021/04/oliver-de-coque-google-doodle/ |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=BellaNaija |language=en-US |publication-place=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Collins |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzvuAAAAMAAJ&q=Oliver%20de%20Coque%20soukous |title=The Ghanaian Concert Party: African Popular Entertainment at the Cross Roads |date=1994 |publisher=State University of New York at Buffalo |location=Buffalo, New York State, United States |pages=47 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQM5AQAAIAAJ&q=Oliver%20de%20Coque%20soukous |title=The Beat: Volume 14 |date=1995 |publisher=Beat Magazine |location=Melbourne, Australia |pages=41 |language=en}}</ref> The superabundance of Nigerian pressings of Zairean music featured the musicians who influenced this trend, as seen in the case of ''Music From Zaire Vol. 6'', which showcased artists from [[Verckys Kiamuangana Mateta]]'s stable like Orchestre Kiam, Orchestre Lipua-Lipua, and the cavacha rhythm.<ref name=":18" /> There was a prevalent inclination to exclude the slower "A" sides of various recordings and instead focus on the climactic [[sebene]], the faster and more improvisational [[Half-time (music)|second half]].<ref name=":18" /> This structural paradigm became emblematic of Igbo guitar highlife recordings epitomized by the music style of Oliver De Coque and Oriental Brothers International.<ref name=":18" />

Soukous experienced widespread diffusion across [[southern Africa]], where it was both adopted and adapted into various offshoots, such as [[Zimbabwe]]'s immensely popular sungura genre.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Musira |first=Patrick |date=6 July 2011 |title=Slow down on ndombolo song and dance Congolese urged |url=https://theafronews.com/slow-down-on-ndombolo-song-and-dance-congolese-urged/ |access-date=20 September 2024 |website=Theafronews.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Colombia ====
During this epoch, African music began procuring popularity globally due to the world music movement. In [[Colombia]], soukous made inroads into the local culture, contributing to the development of [[champeta]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malandra |first=Ocean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2nbDwAAQBAJ&dq=congolese+in+colombia+champeta&pg=PT60 |title=Moon Cartagena & Colombia's Caribbean Coast |publisher=Avalon Publishing |date=December 2020 |isbn=9781640499416 |location=New York City, New York State, United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Utpc5-zDBqAC |title=The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: Africa; South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean; The United States and Canada; Europe; Oceania |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |editor-last=Koskoff |editor-first=Ellen |location=Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom |pages=185}}</ref> In the third chapter of the documentary ''Pasos de la Cumbia'', Lucas Silva, a DJ and cultural producer specializing in African music, recounts how [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] purchased a plane in Colombia.<ref name=":30">{{Cite web |last=Akindes |first=Simon Adetona |date=20 September 2022 |title=The "Caribbeanization" of Afrobeat in Colombia |url=https://africasacountry.com/2023/09/the-caribbeanization-of-afrobeat-in-colombia |access-date=17 October 2024 |website=Africasacountry.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=Documentary series - Pasos de Cumbia |url=https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLRjmZTr5CUMsSry3F7q_nqF74yFNH7aRs#:~:text=%E2%80%9CPasos%20de%20Cumbia%E2%80%9D%20es%20una,a%20Latinoam%C3%A9rica,%20espec%C3%ADficamente%20a%20Colombia. |access-date=17 October 2024 |website=[[YouTube]] |language=en |publication-place=San Bruno, California, United States}}</ref> When it required maintenance, a Colombian mechanic traveled to Zaire, returning with a collection of 45 rpm records, including the iconic ''El Mambote'' by l'Orchestre Veve, which became a hit.<ref name=":30" /><ref name=":84"/> Other 45 rpm records soon flooded [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]] and [[Barranquilla]].<ref name=":30" /> 

In the article "''Champeta is Liberation''"'': The Indestructible Sound System Culture of Afro-Colombia'', journalist April Clare Welsh observes, "When 'música Africana' swept the region during the '70s and '80s, sound systems were instrumental in forging a collective diasporic identity for [[Afro-Colombians]] in a society deeply divided by race and class".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Welsh |first=April Clare |date=21 August 2016 |title="Champeta is liberation": The indestructible sound system culture of Afro-Colombia |url=https://www.factmag.com/2016/08/21/champeta-colombia-sound-system-music-lucas-silva-palenque/ |access-date=17 October 2024 |website=[[Fact (UK magazine)|Fact]] |language=en-US |publication-place=London, England, United Kingdom}}</ref> African musicians like [[Kanda Bongo Man]], [[Nico Kasanda|Nicolas Kasanda wa Mikalay]], [[Diblo Dibala]], Ikenga Super Stars of Africa, [[M'bilia Bel]], and [[Mahlathini]] and the [[Mahotella Queens]] became local celebrities, forging a "pan-African connection that was, at the time, largely unknown to many Africans within the continent".<ref name=":30" /> Local musicians began replicating the arrangements of Congolese artists like Nicolas Kasanda wa Mikalay, [[Tabu Ley Rochereau]], M'bilia Bel, [[Syran Mbenza]], Lokassa Ya M'Bongo, [[Pépé Kallé]], Rémy Sahlomon, and Kanda Bongo Man.<ref name=":73" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Slater |first=Russ |date=17 January 2020 |title=Colombia's African Soul |url=https://longlivevinyl.net/2020/01/17/colombias-african-soul/ |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Long Live Vinyl}}</ref><ref name=":84" /> Homegrown musicians such as Viviano Torres, Luis Towers, and Charles King became renowned for this.<ref name=":73" /> This movement led to the creation of champeta, a genre rooted in "soukous guitars, bass, drumming, and dance".<ref name=":30" /> Due to its overtly sensual dance moves and its association with the "Black Below", champeta was derided by the [[White Colombians|white]] [[Social class in Colombia|upper classes]].<ref name=":30" /> However, for Afro-Colombians, it was an assertion of their cultural identity and resilience.<ref name=":30" /> DJs often renamed African songs with Spanish titles, composed champetas in the [[Palenquero|Palenque]] language (a creole fusion of Spanish and [[Bantu languages]] such as [[Kongo language|Kikongo]] and [[Lingala]]), or phonetically distorted the original names.<ref name=":30" /> For instance, Mbilia Bel's "Mobali Na Ngai Wana" became known in Colombia as "La Bollona". Champeta emerged as a new marker of Black identity along Colombia's western coast and evolved from a peripheral genre to a mainstream national phenomenon.<ref name=":30" /> During the [[Super Bowl LIV halftime show]] on 2 February 2020, at [[Hard Rock Stadium]] in Miami Gardens, Florida, [[Shakira]] danced to Syran Mbenza's "Icha", a song colloquially referred to as "El Sebastián" in Colombia, which spawned the #ChampetaChallenge on social media platforms worldwide.<ref name=":102">{{Cite web |last=Mwamba |first=Bibi |date=7 February 2022 |title=L'influence de la rumba congolaise sur la scène musicale mondiale |trans-title=The influence of Congolese rumba on the world music scene |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/magazine/linfluence-de-la-rumba-congolaise-sur-la-scene-musicale-mondiale |access-date=17 October 2024 |website=Music in Africa |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2 February 2020 |title=Shakira Brought Afro-Colombian Dance to the Super Bowl |url=https://www.okayafrica.com/shakira-afro-colombian-dance-champeta-to-the-super-bowl-performance/ |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=[[OkayAfrica]]}}</ref>