Editing Staphylococcus aureus (section)

==Role in health==
In humans, ''S. aureus'' can be present in the upper respiratory tract, gut mucosa, and skin as a member of the normal [[microbiota]].<ref name=URTmicribiome2016rev>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schenck LP, Surette MG, Bowdish DM | title = Composition and immunological significance of the upper respiratory tract microbiota | journal = FEBS Letters | volume = 590 | issue = 21 | pages = 3705–20 | date = November 2016 | pmid = 27730630 | pmc = 7164007 | doi = 10.1002/1873-3468.12455 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wollina U | title = Microbiome in atopic dermatitis | journal = Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology | volume = 10 | pages = 51–56 | date = 2017 | pmid = 28260936 | pmc = 5327846 | doi = 10.2147/CCID.S130013 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Otto M | title = Staphylococcus colonization of the skin and antimicrobial peptides | journal = Expert Review of Dermatology | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 183–195 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20473345 | pmc = 2867359 | doi = 10.1586/edm.10.6 }}</ref> However, because ''S. aureus'' can cause disease under certain host and environmental conditions, it is characterized as a [[pathobiont]].<ref name="URTmicribiome2016rev" />

In the United States, MRSA infections alone are estimated to cost the healthcare system over $3.2 billion annually.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=Rebecca R. |last2=Hota |first2=Bala |last3=Ahmad |first3=Ibrar |last4=Scott |first4=R. Douglas, II |last5=Foster |first5=Susan D. |last6=Abbasi |first6=Fauzia |last7=Schabowski |first7=Shari |last8=Kampe |first8=Linda M. |last9=Ciavarella |first9=Ginevra G. |last10=Supino |first10=Mark |last11=Naples |first11=Jeremy |last12=Cordell |first12=Ralph |last13=Levy |first13=Stuart B. |last14=Weinstein |first14=Robert A. |date=2009-10-15 |title=Hospital and Societal Costs of Antimicrobial-Resistant Infections in a Chicago Teaching Hospital: Implications for Antibiotic Stewardship |url=https://academic.oup.com/cid/article-abstract/49/8/1175/425330?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |volume=49 |issue=8 |pages=1175–1184 |doi=10.1086/605630 |pmid=19739972 |issn=1058-4838}}</ref> These infections account for nearly 20,000 deaths each year in the U.S., exceeding those caused by HIV/AIDS, Parkinson's disease, and homicide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Klevens |first1=R. Monina |last2=Morrison |first2=Melissa A. |last3=Nadle |first3=Joelle |last4=Petit |first4=Susan |last5=Gershman |first5=Ken |last6=Ray |first6=Susan |last7=Harrison |first7=Lee H. |last8=Lynfield |first8=Ruth |last9=Dumyati |first9=Ghinwa |last10=Townes |first10=John M. |last11=Craig |first11=Allen S. |last12=Zell |first12=Elizabeth R. |last13=Fosheim |first13=Gregory E. |last14=McDougal |first14=Linda K. |last15=Carey |first15=Roberta B. |date=2007-10-17 |title=Invasive Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections in the United States |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/209197 |journal=JAMA |volume=298 |issue=15 |pages=1763–1771 |doi=10.1001/jama.298.15.1763 |pmid=17940231 |issn=0098-7484|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Annually, over 119,000 bloodstream infections in the U.S. are attributed to ''S. aureus''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-10 |title=Staphylococcus aureus in Healthcare Settings |url=https://www.cdc.gov/hai/organisms/staph.html |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240515064151/https://www.cdc.gov/HAI/organisms/staph.html |archive-date=2024-05-15 |access-date=2025-04-28 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref> ''S. aureus'' infections are ranked as one of the costliest healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), with each case averaging $23,000 to $46,000 in treatment and hospital resource utilization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zimlichman |first1=Eyal |last2=Henderson |first2=Daniel |last3=Tamir |first3=Orly |last4=Franz |first4=Calvin |last5=Song |first5=Peter |last6=Yamin |first6=Cyrus K. |last7=Keohane |first7=Carol |last8=Denham |first8=Charles R. |last9=Bates |first9=David W. |date=2013-12-09 |title=Health Care–Associated Infections: A Meta-analysis of Costs and Financial Impact on the US Health Care System |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/1733452 |journal=JAMA Internal Medicine |volume=173 |issue=22 |pages=2039–2046 |doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.9763 |pmid=23999949 |issn=2168-6106|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

On average, patients with MRSA infections experience a lengthened hospital stay of approximately 6 to 11 days, which drives up inpatient care costs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=Stuart H. |last2=Gerding |first2=Dale N. |last3=Johnson |first3=Stuart |last4=Kelly |first4=Ciaran P. |last5=Loo |first5=Vivian G. |last6=McDonald |first6=L. Clifford |last7=Pepin |first7=Jacques |last8=Wilcox |first8=Mark H. |date=May 2010 |title=Clinical Practice Guidelines for Clostridium difficile Infection in Adults: 2010 Update by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/infection-control-and-hospital-epidemiology/article/abs/clinical-practice-guidelines-for-clostridium-difficile-infection-in-adults-2010-update-by-the-society-for-healthcare-epidemiology-of-america-shea-and-the-infectious-diseases-society-of-america-idsa/F15EC65473C368F9E24434B46B17B19A |journal=Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology |language=en |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=431–455 |doi=10.1086/651706 |pmid=20307191 |issn=0899-823X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kourtis |first=Athena P. |date=2019 |title=Vital Signs: Epidemiology and Recent Trends in Methicillin-Resistant and in Methicillin-Susceptible Staphylococcus aureus Bloodstream Infections — United States |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/68/wr/mm6809e1.htm?s_cid=mm6809e1_w |journal=MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report |language=en-us |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=214–219 |doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6809e1 |issn=0149-2195 |pmc=6421967 |pmid=30845118}}</ref> The burden extends beyond direct healthcare expenses. Indirect costs, such as lost wages, reduced productivity, and long-term disability, can significantly amplify the overall economic toll. Severe ''S. aureus'' infections, including bacteremia, endocarditis, and osteomyelitis, often require prolonged recovery and rehabilitation, affecting patients' ability to return to work or perform daily activities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cosgrove |first1=Sara E. |last2=Sakoulas |first2=George |last3=Perencevich |first3=Eli N. |last4=Schwaber |first4=Mitchell J. |last5=Karchmer |first5=Adolf W. |last6=Carmeli |first6=Yehuda |date=2003-01-01 |title=Comparison of Mortality Associated with Methicillin-Resistant and Methicillin-Susceptible Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia: A Meta-analysis |url=https://academic.oup.com/cid/article-abstract/36/1/53/283567?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=53–59 |doi=10.1086/345476 |issn=1058-4838|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Hospitals also invest heavily in infection control protocols to limit the spread of ''S. aureus'', especially drug-resistant strains. These measures include routine screening, isolation practices, use of personal protective equipment, and antibiotic stewardship programs, which collectively contribute to rising operational costs. These necessary preventative measures can raise hospital costs by tens of thousands of dollars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dantes |first1=Raymund |last2=Mu |first2=Yi |last3=Belflower |first3=Ruth |last4=Aragon |first4=Deborah |last5=Dumyati |first5=Ghinwa |last6=Harrison |first6=Lee H. |last7=Lessa |first7=Fernanda C. |last8=Lynfield |first8=Ruth |last9=Nadle |first9=Joelle |last10=Petit |first10=Susan |last11=Ray |first11=Susan M. |last12=Schaffner |first12=William |last13=Townes |first13=John |last14=Fridkin |first14=Scott |last15=for the Emerging Infections Program–Active Bacterial Core Surveillance MRSA Surveillance Investigators |date=2013-11-25 |title=National Burden of Invasive Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections, United States, 2011 |journal=JAMA Internal Medicine |volume=173 |issue=21 |pages=1970–1978 |doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.10423 |issn=2168-6106 |pmc=10887428 |pmid=24043270}}</ref>