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Sunda Arc
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== Historic eruptions and arc volcanism == The Sunda Arc is home to some of the world's most dangerous and explosive volcanoes.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last1=Deegan|first1=Frances M.|last2=Whitehouse|first2=Martin J.|last3=Troll|first3=Valentin R.|last4=Geiger|first4=Harri|last5=Jeon|first5=Heejin|last6=le Roux|first6=Petrus|last7=Harris|first7=Chris|last8=van Helden|first8=Marcel|last9=González-Maurel|first9=Osvaldo|date=2021-06-24|title=Sunda arc mantle source δ18O value revealed by intracrystal isotope analysis|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=12|issue=1|pages=3930|doi=10.1038/s41467-021-24143-3|pmid=34168147|pmc=8225799|bibcode=2021NatCo..12.3930D|issn=2041-1723}}</ref> The [[1815 eruption of Mount Tambora]] on [[Sumbawa]] and the [[1257 Samalas eruption|1257 eruption]] of [[Mount Samalas]] on [[Lombok]] were among the largest in the last two millennia, ranking 7 on the [[Volcanic Explosivity Index|VEI]] scale.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oppenheimer|first=Clive|date=2016-08-19|title=Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1191/0309133303pp379ra|journal=Progress in Physical Geography|volume=27|issue=2|pages=230–259|language=en|doi=10.1191/0309133303pp379ra|s2cid=131663534|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The Sunda Arc subduction zone was also the site of one of the largest known eruptions of the [[Cenozoic]], the VEI 8 [[Toba catastrophe theory|Toba supereruption]] on [[Sumatra]], which expelled 2,800 km<sup>3</sup> of magma c. 74,000 [[Before Present|BP]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ninkovich|first1=D.|last2=Shackleton|first2=N. J.|last3=Abdel-Monem|first3=A. A.|last4=Obradovich|first4=J. D.|last5=Izett|first5=G.|date=1978-12-07|title=K–Ar age of the late Pleistocene eruption of Toba, north Sumatra|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/276574a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=276|issue=5688|pages=574–577|doi=10.1038/276574a0|bibcode=1978Natur.276..574N|s2cid=4364788|issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The resulting caldera has become [[Lake Toba]]. The loudest noise in [[recorded history]] occurred during the [[1883 eruption of Krakatoa]] and was heard {{convert|5,000|km|mi|abbr=on}} away.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Winchester, Simon.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52531741|title=Krakatoa : the day the world exploded, 27 August 1883|date=2003|publisher=Viking|isbn=0-670-91126-7|location=London|oclc=52531741}}</ref> Hundreds of thousands of people have been killed by these eruptions and by episodes of activity at other volcanoes, including [[Papandayan]], [[Galunggung]], [[Mount Merapi|Merapi]], [[Kelut|Kelud]], [[Mount Sinabung|Sinabung]], and [[Mount Agung|Agung]]. === Main-arc volcanism === [[File:Map_indonesia_volcanoes.gif|thumb|upright=2.2|A map showing chains of volcanoes in Indonesia]] The main-arc volcanism along Sunda is mainly derived from the interaction between the [[Indo-Australian Plate]] and the [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasia Plate]]. Magma originates from the partial melting of the mantle wedge driven by the fluids from the subducting slab.<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal|last1=Setijadji|first1=Lucas Donny|last2=Kajino|first2=Shigeo|last3=Imai|first3=Akira|last4=Watanabe|first4=Koichiro|date=2006|title=Cenozoic Island Arc Magmatism in Java Island (Sunda Arc, Indonesia): Clues on Relationships between Geodynamics of Volcanic Centers and Ore Mineralization|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1751-3928.2006.tb00284.x|journal=Resource Geology|language=en|volume=56|issue=3|pages=267–292|doi=10.1111/j.1751-3928.2006.tb00284.x|bibcode=2006ReGeo..56..267S |s2cid=128418609 |issn=1751-3928|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In addition, volcanic rocks from [[Quaternary|the Quaternary]] generally show more enrichment in alkaline contents than those from [[Tertiary (geology)|the Tertiary]] age.<ref name=":42"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/> The majority of basalts of the arc have [[Calc-alkaline magma series|calc-alkaline]] contents, except for some potassic lava production in East Java.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carn|first1=S. A.|last2=Pyle|first2=D. M.|date=2001-09-01|title=Petrology and Geochemistry of the Lamongan Volcanic Field, East Java, Indonesia: Primitive Sunda Arc Magmas in an Extensional Tectonic Setting?|url=https://academic.oup.com/petrology/article/42/9/1643/1408931|journal=Journal of Petrology|language=en|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1643–1683|doi=10.1093/petrology/42.9.1643|bibcode=2001JPet...42.1643C|issn=0022-3530|doi-access=free}}</ref> === Back-arc volcanism === The magmatic activities along the back-arc may or may not relate to the main arc materials. Magma and lava appear to have originated from molten materials at a deeper part of the mantle as supported by a higher K<sub>2</sub>O/Na<sub>2</sub>O ratio in comparison to other parts of Sunda Arc.<ref name=":62"/><ref name=":42"/> The most salient volcanoes in the back-arc region are Lasem, [[Mount Muria|Muria]], and [[Bawean]] in which their volcanic rocks show complex patterns in terms of chemical signature.<ref name=":62" />[[File:Screen Shot 2563-11-08 at 11.20.12.png|thumb|upright=2.5|A geologic map of Indonesia Region (ESRI, USGS, HERE, Garmin, NOAA)]]
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