Editing Sustainable agriculture (section)

== Environmental factors ==
Practices that can cause long-term damage to [[soil]] include excessive [[Tillage|tilling]] of the soil (leading to [[erosion]]) and [[irrigation]] without adequate drainage (leading to [[Soil salinity|salinization]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Zhanjun|last2=Chen|first2=Zhujun|last3=Ma|first3=Pengyi|last4=Meng|first4=Yan|last5=Zhou|first5=Jianbin|date=2017-11-01|title=Effects of tillage, mulching and N management on yield, water productivity, N uptake and residual soil nitrate in a long-term wheat-summer maize cropping system|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378429017300151|journal=Field Crops Research|language=en|volume=213|pages=154–164|doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2017.08.006|bibcode=2017FCrRe.213..154L |issn=0378-4290}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Ajay|date=2020|title=Salinization and drainage problems of agricultural land|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ird.2477|journal=Irrigation and Drainage|language=en|volume=69|issue=4|pages=844–853|doi=10.1002/ird.2477|bibcode=2020IrrDr..69..844S |s2cid=219502253|issn=1531-0361}}</ref>

[[File:Conservation farming 02.jpg |thumb |upright |Conservation farming in [[Zambia]]]]

The most important factors for a farming site are [[climate]], soil, [[nutrient]]s and [[water resources]]. Of the four, water and [[soil conservation]] are the most amenable to human intervention. When farmers grow and harvest crops, they remove some nutrients from the soil. Without replenishment, the land suffers from [[nutrient depletion]] and becomes either unusable or suffers from reduced [[Crop yield|yields]]. Sustainable agriculture depends on replenishing the soil while minimizing the use or need of non-renewable resources, such as [[natural gas]] or mineral ores.

A farm that can "produce perpetually", yet has negative effects on environmental quality elsewhere is not sustainable agriculture. An example of a case in which a global view may be warranted is the application of [[fertilizer]] or [[manure]], which can improve the productivity of a farm but can pollute nearby rivers and coastal waters ([[eutrophication]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Xia|first1=Yinfeng|last2=Zhang|first2=Ming|last3=Tsang|first3=Daniel C. W.|last4=Geng|first4=Nan|last5=Lu|first5=Debao|last6=Zhu|first6=Lifang|last7=Igalavithana|first7=Avanthi Deshani|last8=Dissanayake|first8=Pavani Dulanja|last9=Rinklebe|first9=Jörg|last10=Yang|first10=Xiao|last11=Ok|first11=Yong Sik|date=2020-02-04|title=Recent advances in control technologies for non-point source pollution with nitrogen and phosphorous (sic) from agricultural runoff: current practices and future prospects|journal=Applied Biological Chemistry|volume=63|issue=1|pages=8|doi=10.1186/s13765-020-0493-6|issn=2468-0842|doi-access=free|hdl=10397/82228|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The other extreme can also be undesirable, as the problem of low crop yields due to exhaustion of nutrients in the soil has been related to [[rainforest]] destruction.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why are rainforests being destroyed?|url=https://www.rainforestconcern.org/forest-facts/why-are-rainforests-being-destroyed|access-date=2021-04-01|website=Rainforest Concern|language=en-gb}}</ref> In Asia, the specific amount of land needed for sustainable farming is about {{convert|12.5|acre}} which include land for animal fodder, cereal production as a cash crop, and other food crops. In some cases, a small unit of aquaculture is included (AARI-1996).

===Nutrients===
====Nitrates====
Nitrates are used widely in farming as fertilizer. Unfortunately, a major environmental problem associated with agriculture is the leaching of nitrates into the environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rao |first1=E. V. S. Prakasa |last2=Puttanna |first2=K. |date=2000 |title=Nitrates, agriculture and environment |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24105267 |journal=Current Science |volume=79 |issue=9 |pages=1163–1168 |jstor=24105267 |issn=0011-3891}}</ref> Possible sources of [[nitrate]]s that would, in principle, be available indefinitely, include:

#recycling crop waste and [[livestock]] or treated [[humanure|human manure]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Petersen|first1=S. O.|last2=Sommer|first2=S. G.|last3=Béline|first3=F.|last4=Burton|first4=C.|last5=Dach|first5=J.|last6=Dourmad|first6=J. Y.|last7=Leip|first7=A.|last8=Misselbrook|first8=T.|last9=Nicholson|first9=F.|last10=Poulsen|first10=H. D.|last11=Provolo|first11=G.|date=2007-12-01|title=Recycling of livestock manure in a whole-farm perspective|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1871141307004672|journal=Livestock Science|language=en|volume=112|issue=3|pages=180–191|doi=10.1016/j.livsci.2007.09.001|issn=1871-1413}}</ref>
#growing [[legume]] crops and [[forage]]s such as [[peanut]]s or [[alfalfa]] that form symbioses with [[nitrogen fixation|nitrogen-fixing]] [[bacteria]] called [[rhizobia]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mahmud|first1=Kishan|last2=Makaju|first2=Shiva|last3=Ibrahim|first3=Razi|last4=Missaoui|first4=Ali|date=2020|title=Current Progress in Nitrogen Fixing Plants and Microbiome Research|journal=Plants|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=97|doi=10.3390/plants9010097|pmid=31940996|pmc=7020401|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020Plnts...9...97M }}</ref>
#industrial production of nitrogen by the [[Haber process]] uses hydrogen, which is currently derived from natural gas (but this hydrogen could instead be made by [[electrolysis]] of water using renewable electricity)
#genetically engineering (non-legume) crops to form nitrogen-fixing symbioses or fix nitrogen without microbial symbionts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pankievicz|first1=Vânia C. S.|last2=Irving|first2=Thomas B.|last3=Maia|first3=Lucas G. S.|last4=Ané|first4=Jean-Michel|date=2019-12-03|title=Are we there yet? The long walk towards the development of efficient symbiotic associations between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and non-leguminous crops|url= |journal=BMC Biology|volume=17|issue=1|pages=99|doi=10.1186/s12915-019-0710-0|issn=1741-7007|pmc=6889567|pmid=31796086 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The last option was proposed in the 1970s, but is only gradually becoming feasible.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.mongabay.com/bioenergy/2008/03/scientists-discover-genetics-of.html |title=Scientists discover genetics of nitrogen fixation in plants - potential implications for future agriculture |publisher=News.mongabay.com |date=2008-03-08 |access-date=2013-09-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.0710618105 |title=SymRK defines a common genetic basis for plant root endosymbioses with arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi, rhizobia, and ''Frankia'' bacteria |date=2008 |last1=Gherbi |first1=Hassen |last2=Markmann |first2=Katharina |last3=Svistoonoff |first3=Sergio |last4=Estevan |first4=Joan |last5=Autran |first5=Daphné |last6=Giczey |first6=Gabor |last7=Auguy |first7=Florence |last8=Péret |first8=Benjamin |last9=Laplaze |first9=Laurent |last10=Franche |first10=Claudine |last11=Parniske |first11=Martin |last12=Bogusz |first12=Didier |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=12 |pages=4928–4932 |doi-access=free |pmid=18316735 |pmc=2290763 }}</ref> Sustainable options for replacing other nutrient inputs such as phosphorus and potassium are more limited.

Other options include [[shifting cultivation|long-term crop rotations]], returning to natural cycles that annually flood cultivated lands (returning lost nutrients) such as the [[flooding of the Nile]], the long-term use of [[biochar]], and use of crop and livestock [[landrace]]s that are adapted to less than ideal conditions such as pests, drought, or lack of nutrients. Crops that require high levels of soil nutrients can be cultivated in a more sustainable manner with appropriate fertilizer management practices.

==== Phosphate ====
[[Phosphate]] is a primary component in [[fertilizer]]. It is the second most important nutrient for plants after nitrogen,<ref name="Atekan-2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Atekan |first1=A. |last2=Nuraini |first2=Y. |last3=Handayanto |first3=E. |last4=Syekhfani |first4=S. |date=2014-07-07 |title=The potential of phosphate solubilizing bacteria isolated from sugarcane wastes for solubilizing phosphate |journal=Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=175–182 |doi=10.15243/jdmlm.2014.014.175|doi-access=free }}</ref> and is often a limiting factor.<ref name="Khan-2007">{{Cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Mohammad Saghir |last2=Zaidi |first2=Almas |last3=Wani |first3=Parvaze A. |date=2007-03-01 |title=Role of phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms in sustainable agriculture — A review |journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=29–43 |doi=10.1051/agro:2006011 |bibcode=2007AgSD...27...29K |s2cid=22096957 |issn=1774-0746|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00886352/file/hal-00886352.pdf}}</ref> It is important for sustainable agriculture as it can improve soil fertility and crop yields.<ref name="Cordell-2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Cordell |first1=Dana |author-link=Dana Cordell |last2=White |first2=Stuart |date=2013-01-31 |title=Sustainable Phosphorus Measures: Strategies and Technologies for Achieving Phosphorus Security |journal=Agronomy |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=86–116 |doi=10.3390/agronomy3010086 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2013Agron...3...86C |hdl=10453/30505 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Phosphorus is involved in all major metabolic processes including photosynthesis, energy transfer, signal transduction, macromolecular biosynthesis, and respiration. It is needed for root ramification and strength and seed formation, and can increase disease resistance.<ref name="Sharma-2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=Seema B. |last2=Sayyed |first2=Riyaz Z. |last3=Trivedi |first3=Mrugesh H. |last4=Gobi |first4=Thivakaran A. |date=2013-10-31 |title=Phosphate solubilizing microbes: sustainable approach for managing phosphorus deficiency in agricultural soils |journal=SpringerPlus |volume=2 |pages=587 |doi=10.1186/2193-1801-2-587|pmid=25674415 |pmc=4320215 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Phosphorus is found in the soil in both inorganic and organic forms<ref name="Atekan-2014" /> and makes up approximately 0.05% of soil biomass.<ref name="Sharma-2013" /> Phosphorus fertilizers are the main input of inorganic phosphorus in agricultural soils and approximately 70%–80% of phosphorus in cultivated soils is inorganic.<ref name="Bhattacharya2019">{{cite book |last=Bhattacharya |first=Amitav |date=2019 |title=Changing Climate and Resource Use Efficiency in Plants |chapter=Chapter 5 - Changing Environmental Condition and Phosphorus-Use Efficiency in Plants  |publisher=Academic Press |pages=241–305 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-816209-5.00005-2 |isbn=978-0-12-816209-5|s2cid=134119450 }}</ref> Long-term use of phosphate-containing chemical fertilizers causes [[eutrophication]] and deplete soil microbial life, so people have looked to other sources.<ref name="Sharma-2013" />
 
Phosphorus fertilizers are manufactured from [[rock phosphate#uses|rock phosphate]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Green |first=B.W. |date=2015 |chapter=2 - Fertilizers in aquaculture |title=Feed and Feeding Practices in Aquaculture |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |pages=27–52 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-100506-4.00002-7 |isbn=978-0-08-100506-4|s2cid=128113857 |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usdaarsfacpub/2422 }}</ref> However, rock phosphate is a non-renewable resource and it is being depleted by mining for agricultural use:<ref name="Cordell-2013" /><ref name="Bhattacharya2019" /> [[peak phosphorus]] will occur within the next few hundred years,<ref name="ifdc.org">[http://www.ifdc.org/Media_Center/Press_Releases/September_2010/IFDC_Report_Indicates_Adequate_Phosphorus_Resource/IFDC_Report_Indicates_Adequate_Phosphorus_Resource IFDC.org - IFDC Report Indicates Adequate Phosphorus Resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127003215/https://ifdc.org/Media_Center/Press_Releases/September_2010/IFDC_Report_Indicates_Adequate_Phosphorus_Resource/IFDC_Report_Indicates_Adequate_Phosphorus_Resource |date=2020-01-27 }}, Sep-2010</ref><ref name="USGS2017">{{cite book |url=https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/phosphate_rock/mcs-2017-phosp.pdf|title=Mineral Commodity Summaries|date=January 2017|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|last1=Jasinski, SM}}</ref><ref name="VanKauwenbergh">{{cite book|last1=Van Kauwenbergh|first1=Steven J.|title=World Phosphate Rock Reserves and Resources|date=2010|publisher=[[International Fertilizer Development Center]] (IFDC)|location=Muscle Shoals, AL, USA|isbn=978-0-88090-167-3|pages=60|url=http://ifdc.org/technical-bulletins/|access-date=7 April 2016|archive-date=19 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819051418/https://ifdc.org/technical-bulletins/|url-status=dead}}</ref> or perhaps earlier.<ref name="Edixhoven2013">{{cite journal|last1=Edixhoven|first1=J.D.|last2=Gupta|first2=J.|last3=Savenije|first3=H.H.G.|title=Recent revisions of phosphate rock reserves and resources: reassuring or misleading? An in-depth literature review of global estimates of phosphate rock reserves and resources|journal=Earth System Dynamics|date=2013|volume=5|issue=2|pages=491–507|doi=10.5194/esd-5-491-2014|bibcode=2014ESD.....5..491E|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The story of phosphorus: Global food security and food for thought|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.10.009 |volume=19 |issue=2|journal=Global Environmental Change |pages=292–305 |year=2009 | last1=Cordell |first1=Dana|bibcode=2009GEC....19..292C |s2cid=1450932 }}</ref><ref>Cordell, Dana & Stuart White 2011. Review: Peak Phosphorus: Clarifying the Key Issues of a Vigorous Debate about Long-Term Phosphorus Security. Sustainability 2011, 3(10), 2027-2049; {{doi|10.3390/su3102027,|doi-access=free}} http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/3/10/2027/htm</ref>

==== Potassium ====
Potassium is a macronutrient very important for plant development and is commonly sought in fertilizers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Potassium for crop production|url=https://extension.umn.edu/phosphorus-and-potassium/potassium-crop-production|access-date=2021-03-12|website=extension.umn.edu|language=en}}</ref> This nutrient is essential for agriculture because it improves water retention, nutrient value, yield, taste, color, texture and disease resistance of crops. It is often used in the cultivation of grains, fruits, vegetables, rice, wheat, millets, sugar, corn, soybeans, [[palm oil]] and coffee.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2009-09-18|title=Potash Price Close to all time highs – Future Outlook|url=http://www.activex.com.au/reports/2008-09/AIV_20081114_ASX_Announ_Potash_Outlook.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918050005/http://www.activex.com.au/reports/2008-09/AIV_20081114_ASX_Announ_Potash_Outlook.pdf|archive-date=2009-09-18|url-status=live|access-date=2021-03-12}}</ref>

Potassium chloride (KCl) represents the most widely source of K used in agriculture,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Silva|first1=José Tadeu Alves da|last2=Pereira|first2=Rosimeire Dantas|last3=Silva|first3=Inez Pereira|last4=Oliveira|first4=Polyanna Mara de|date=2011|title=Produção da bananeira 'Prata anã'(AAB) em função de diferentes doses e fontes de potássio|journal=Revista Ceres|language=pt|volume=58|issue=6|pages=817–822|doi=10.1590/S0034-737X2011000600020|issn=0034-737X|doi-access=free}}</ref> accounting for 90% of all potassium produced for agricultural use.<ref>{{Cite web|title=INFORMaÇÕES E aNáLISES Da ECONOMIa MINERaL BRaSILEIRa|url=http://www.ibram.org.br/sites/1300/1382/00004430.pdf|access-date=2021-03-12|website=www.ibram.org.br|archive-date=2020-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603073104/http://www.ibram.org.br/sites/1300/1382/00004430.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The use of KCl leads to high concentrations of chloride (Clˉ) in soil harming its health due to the increase in soil salinity, imbalance in nutrient availability and this ion's biocidal effect for soil organisms.[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0098847218309699#:~:text=An%20overabundance%20of%20Cl%E2%88%92%20in,contaminated%20soils%20should%20be%20restored.] In consequences the development of plants and soil organisms is affected, putting at risk [[soil biodiversity]] and agricultural productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vieira Megda|first1=Michele Xavier|last2=Mariano|first2=Eduardo|last3=Leite|first3=José Marcos|last4=Megda|first4=Marcio Mahmoud|last5=Ocheuze Trivelin|first5=Paulo Cesar|date=2014-05-01|title=Chloride ion as nitrification inhibitor and its biocidal potential in soils|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038071714000315|journal=Soil Biology and Biochemistry|language=en|volume=72|pages=84–87|doi=10.1016/j.soilbio.2014.01.030|bibcode=2014SBiBi..72...84V |issn=0038-0717}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Geilfus|first=Christoph-Martin|date=2018-05-01|title=Chloride: from Nutrient to Toxicant|url=https://academic.oup.com/pcp/article/59/5/877/4961961|journal=Plant and Cell Physiology|language=en|volume=59|issue=5|pages=877–886|doi=10.1093/pcp/pcy071|pmid=29660029|issn=0032-0781|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pereira|first1=David Gabriel Campos|last2=Santana|first2=Isadora Alves|last3=Megda|first3=Marcio Mahmoud|last4=Megda|first4=Michele Xavier Vieira|last5=Pereira|first5=David Gabriel Campos|last6=Santana|first6=Isadora Alves|last7=Megda|first7=Marcio Mahmoud|last8=Megda|first8=Michele Xavier Vieira|date=2019|title=Potassium chloride: impacts on soil microbial activity and nitrogen mineralization|journal=Ciência Rural|language=en|volume=49|issue=5|doi=10.1590/0103-8478cr20180556|issn=0103-8478|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cruz|first1=Jailson Lopes|last2=Pelacani|first2=Claudinéia Regina|last3=Coelho|first3=Eugênio Ferreira|last4=Caldas|first4=Ranulfo Correa|last5=Almeida|first5=Adriana Queiroz de|last6=Queiroz|first6=Jurema Rosa de|date=2006|title=Influência da salinidade sobre o crescimento, absorção e distribuição de sódio, cloro e macronutrientes em plântulas de maracujazeiro-amarelo|journal=Bragantia|volume=65|issue=2|pages=275–284|doi=10.1590/S0006-87052006000200009|issn=0006-8705|doi-access=free}}</ref> A sustainable option for replacing KCl are chloride-free fertilizers, its use should take into account plants' nutrition needs, and the promotion of soil health.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hue|first1=N.V.|url=https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/pnm15.pdf|title=Plant Nutrient Management in Hawaii's Soils, Approaches for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture|last2=Silva|first2=J.A.|publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa|year=2000|location=Manoa|pages=133–144|chapter=Organic Soil Amendments for Sustainable Agriculture: Organic Sources of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Doval|first=Calvin|date=2018-12-11|title=What is Sustainable Agriculture?|url=https://sarep.ucdavis.edu/sustainable-ag|access-date=2021-03-12|website=Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education Program|language=en}}</ref>

=== Soil ===
[[File:Walls against water runoff.JPG|thumb|Walls built to avoid water run-off, [[Andhra Pradesh]], India]]

[[Land degradation]] is becoming a severe global problem. According to the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]: "About a quarter of the Earth's ice-free land area is subject to human-induced degradation (medium confidence). Soil erosion from agricultural fields is estimated to be currently 10 to 20 times (no tillage) to more than 100 times (conventional tillage) higher than the soil formation rate (medium confidence)."<ref>{{cite book |title=Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems |date=2019 |publisher=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |page=5 |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/4/2019/12/02_Summary-for-Policymakers_SPM.pdf |access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref> Almost half of the land on earth is covered with dry land, which is susceptible to degradation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gomiero |first1=Tiziano |last2=Pimentel |first2=David |last3=Paoletti |first3=Maurizio G. |date=2011-01-01 |title=Is There a Need for a More Sustainable Agriculture? |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/07352689.2011.553515 |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |volume=30 |issue=1–2 |pages=6–23 |doi=10.1080/07352689.2011.553515 |bibcode=2011CRvPS..30....6G |s2cid=62840379 |issn=0735-2689}}</ref> Over a billion tonnes of southern Africa's soil are being lost to erosion annually, which if continued will result in halving of crop yields within thirty to fifty years.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Musokotwane Environment Resource Centre for Southern Africa |title=CEP Factsheet |url=http://www.sardc.net/imercsa/Programs/CEP/Pubs/CEPFS/CEPFS01.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213002938/http://www.sardc.net/imercsa/Programs/CEP/Pubs/CEPFS/CEPFS01.htm |archive-date=2013-02-13}}</ref> A comparative study of two adjacent wheat farms—one using sustainable practices and the other conventional methods—found that the sustainable farm had significantly better soil quality, including higher organic matter, microbial populations, and nutrient content, while also showing 22.4% higher net returns due to lower input costs, despite slightly lower yields.<ref>Reganold, J. P., Papendick, R. I., & Parr, J. F. (1990). Sustainable Agriculture. ''Scientific American'', 262(6), 112–121. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24996835]</ref>
Improper [[soil management]] is threatening the ability to grow sufficient food. [[Intensive agriculture]] reduces the [[carbon]] level in soil, impairing soil structure, crop growth and ecosystem functioning,<ref name="Powlson-2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Powlson |first1=D.S. |last2=Gregory |first2=P.J. |last3=Whalley |first3=W.R. |last4=Quinton |first4=J.N. |last5=Hopkins |first5=D.W. |last6=Whitmore |first6=A.P. |last7=Hirsch |first7=P.R. |last8=Goulding |first8=K.W.T. |date=2011-01-01 |title=Soil management in relation to sustainable agriculture and ecosystem services |journal=Food Policy |volume=36 |pages=S72–S87 |doi=10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.11.025}}</ref> and accelerating [[climate change]].<ref name="Powlson-2011" /> Modification of agricultural practices is a recognized method of [[carbon sequestration]] as soil can act as an effective [[carbon sink]].<ref>{{Cite web |work=[[Carbon180]]|date=2021|title=Leading with Soil|url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5b9362d89d5abb8c51d474f8/t/5eaa30d12c3a767e64c3845b/1588211922979/LeadingWithSoil_Final+Text.pdf}}</ref>

Soil management techniques include [[no-till farming]], [[keyline design]] and [[windbreaks]] to reduce wind erosion, [[Compost|reincorporation of organic matter]] into the soil, reducing [[Soil salinity|soil salinization]], and preventing water run-off.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Principles of sustainable soil management in agroecosystems |date=2013 |publisher=CRC Press |editor-last=Lal |editor-first=R. |editor-last2=Stewart |editor-first2=Bobby Alton |isbn=978-1466513471 |oclc=768171461}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Agroecology: the ecology of sustainable food systems |last=Gliessman |first=Stephen |publisher=CRC Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1439895610 |location=Boca Raton |oclc=744303838}}</ref>

=== Land ===
{{see also|Peak farmland}}

As the global population increases and demand for food increases, there is pressure on land as a resource. In [[land-use planning]] and management, considering the impacts of [[land-use change]]s on factors such as soil erosion can support long-term agricultural sustainability, as shown by a study of Wadi Ziqlab, a dry area in the Middle East where farmers graze livestock and grow olives, vegetables, and grains.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mohawesh |first1=Yasser |last2=Taimeh |first2=Awni |last3=Ziadat |first3=Feras |date=September 2015 |title=Effects of land-use changes and soil conservation intervention on soil properties as indicators for land degradation under a Mediterranean climate. |journal=Solid Earth |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=857–868 |doi=10.5194/se-6-857-2015|bibcode=2015SolE....6..857M |url=http://www.solid-earth.net/6/857/2015/se-6-857-2015.html|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Looking back over the 20th century shows that for people in poverty, following environmentally sound land practices has not always been a viable option due to many complex and challenging life circumstances.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grimble |first=Robin |date=April 2002 |title=Rural Poverty and Environmental Management : A framework for understanding |journal=Transformation: An International Journal of Holistic Mission Studies |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=120–132 |doi=10.1177/026537880201900206|s2cid=149066616 |oclc=5724786521}}</ref> Currently, increased [[land degradation]] in developing countries may be connected with rural poverty among smallholder farmers when forced into unsustainable agricultural practices out of necessity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barbier |first1=Edward B. |last2=Hochard |first2=Jacob P. |date=May 11, 2016 |title=Does Land Degradation Increase Poverty in Developing Countries? |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=e0152973 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0152973|pmid=27167738 |pmc=4864404|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1152973B |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Converting big parts of the land surface to agriculture has severe environmental and health consequences. For example, it leads to rise in [[zoonotic disease]] (like the [[Coronavirus disease 2019]]) due to the degradation of natural buffers between humans and animals, reducing biodiversity and creating larger groups of genetically similar animals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Science points to causes of COVID-19 |url=https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/science-points-causes-covid-19 |website=United Nations Environmental Programm |date=22 May 2020 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=24 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=Pandemics result from destruction of nature, say UN and WHO |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/17/pandemics-destruction-nature-un-who-legislation-trade-green-recovery |access-date=24 June 2020 |agency=The Guardian |date=17 June 2020}}</ref>

Land is a finite resource on Earth. Although expansion of agricultural land can decrease [[biodiversity]] and contribute to [[deforestation]], the picture is complex; for instance, a study examining the introduction of sheep by Norse settlers (Vikings) to the Faroe Islands of the North Atlantic concluded that, over time, the fine partitioning of land plots contributed more to soil erosion and degradation than grazing itself.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Thomson |first1=Amanda |last2=Simpson |first2=Ian |last3=Brown |first3=Jennifer |date=October 2005 |title=Sustainable rangeland grazing in Norse Faroe. |url=http://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/132/1/simpson-hecol-2005.pdf |journal=Human Ecology |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=737–761 |doi=10.1007/s10745-005-7596-x|bibcode=2005HumEc..33..737T |hdl=1893/132|s2cid=18144243 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations estimates that in coming decades, cropland will continue to be lost to industrial and [[urban development]], along with reclamation of wetlands, and conversion of forest to cultivation, resulting in the [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]] and increased soil erosion.<ref name="fao2008">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4252e/y4252e14.htm |title=FAO World Agriculture towards 2015/2030 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |date=21 August 2008}}</ref>

=== Energy ===
In modern agriculture, energy is used in on-farm mechanisation, food processing, storage, and transportation processes.<ref name="fao2013">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X8054E/x8054e05.htm#P363_53908 |title=FAO World Agriculture towards 2015/2030 |publisher=Fao.org |access-date=2013-09-10}}</ref> It has therefore been found that energy prices are closely linked to [[food prices]].<ref name="fao">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2454e/i2454e00.pdf |title=FAO 2011 Energy Smart Food |access-date=2013-09-10}}</ref> Oil is also used as an input in [[agrochemical|agricultural chemicals]]. The [[International Energy Agency]] projects higher prices of non-renewable energy resources as a result of fossil fuel resources being depleted. It may therefore decrease global [[food security]] unless action is taken to 'decouple' fossil fuel energy from food production, with a move towards 'energy-smart' agricultural systems including [[renewable energy]].<ref name="fao" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sarkodie|first1=Samuel A.|last2=Ntiamoah|first2=Evans B.|last3=Li|first3=Dongmei|date=2019|title=Panel heterogeneous distribution analysis of trade and modernized agriculture on CO<sub>2</sub> emissions: The role of renewable and fossil fuel energy consumption|journal=Natural Resources Forum|language=en|volume=43|issue=3|pages=135–153|doi=10.1111/1477-8947.12183|issn=1477-8947|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019NRF....43..135S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Majeed |first1=Yaqoob |last2=Khan |first2=Muhammad Usman |last3=Waseem |first3=Muhammad |last4=Zahid |first4=Umair |last5=Mahmood |first5=Faisal |last6=Majeed |first6=Faizan |last7=Sultan |first7=Muhammad |last8=Raza |first8=Ali |title=Renewable energy as an alternative source for energy management in agriculture |journal=[[Energy Reports]] |date=2023 |volume=10 |pages=344–359 |doi=10.1016/j.egyr.2023.06.032 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2023EnRep..10..344M }}</ref>
The use of solar powered irrigation in [[Pakistan]] is said to be a closed system for agricultural water irrigation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Advances in Sustainable Agriculture: Solar-powered Irrigation Systems in Pakistan |url=https://www.mcgill.ca/channels/news/advances-sustainable-agriculture-solar-powered-irrigation-systems-pakistan-232929 | publisher=McGill University | date= 2014-02-12 |access-date=2014-02-12}}</ref>

The environmental cost of transportation could be avoided if people use local products.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://urbanland.uli.org/news/urban-agriculture-practices-to-improve-cities/|title=Urban Agriculture: Practices to Improve Cities|date=2011-01-18|access-date=2018-04-17|archive-date=2016-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422143639/https://urbanland.uli.org/news/urban-agriculture-practices-to-improve-cities/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Water ===

In some areas sufficient [[rainfall]] is available for crop growth, but many other areas require [[irrigation]]. For irrigation systems to be sustainable, they require proper management (to avoid [[Soil salinity|salinization]]) and must not use more water from their source than is naturally replenishable. Otherwise, the water source effectively becomes a [[non-renewable resource]]. Improvements in water [[well drilling]] technology and [[submersible pump]]s, combined with the development of [[drip irrigation]] and low-pressure pivots, have made it possible to regularly achieve high crop yields in areas where reliance on rainfall alone had previously made successful agriculture unpredictable. However, this progress has come at a price. In many areas, such as the [[Ogallala Aquifer]], the water is being used faster than it can be replenished.

According to the UC Davis Agricultural Sustainability Institute, several steps must be taken to develop drought-resistant farming systems even in "normal" years with average rainfall. These measures include both policy and management actions:<ref name="Sarep 2013">{{cite web |url=http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/concept.htm |title=What is Sustainable Agriculture? — ASI |publisher=Sarep.ucdavis.edu |access-date=2013-09-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070421034222/http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/concept.htm |archive-date=2007-04-21}}</ref>

# improving [[water conservation]] and storage measures<ref name="Sarep 2013" />
# providing incentives for selection of [[drought-tolerant]] crop species<ref name="Sarep 2013" />
# using reduced-volume irrigation systems<ref name="Sarep 2013" />
# managing crops to reduce water loss<ref name="Sarep 2013" />
# not planting crops at all.<ref name="Sarep 2013" />
 
Indicators for sustainable water resource development include the average annual flow of rivers from rainfall, flows from outside a country, the percentage of water coming from outside a country, and gross water withdrawal.<ref name="faoWater">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/w4745e/w4745e0d.htm |title=Indicators for sustainable water resources development |publisher=Fao.org |access-date=2013-09-10}}</ref> It is estimated that agricultural practices consume 69% of the world's fresh water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Impact of Sustainable Agriculture and Farming Practices |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/sustainable-agriculture |access-date=2023-09-18 |website=World Wildlife Fund |language=en}}</ref>

Farmers discovered a way to save water using wool in Wyoming and other parts of the United States.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://time.com/7202460/farmers-waste-wool-save-water-drought/ | title=Farmers Are Using Wool to Save Water | date=23 December 2024 }}</ref>