Editing Synergism (section)

== Views among Christian denominations ==
[[File:Hunt Light of the World.jpg|thumb|upright|Synergists compare God's role in salvation to Christ "standing at the door"{{sfn|Pugh|1860|p=58}} (''[[The Light of the World (painting)|The Light of the World]]'' by [[William Holman Hunt]]).]]
=== Denominations traditionally upholding synergism ===
==== Catholic theology ====
Synergism is an important part of the salvation theology of the [[Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Bordwell|1999|loc={{zwnj}}|p=766}} Following the [[Council of Orange (529)|Second Council of Orange]] (529),{{sfn|Stanglin|McCall|2012|p=153}} the [[Council of Trent]] (1545–63) reaffirmed the resistibility of [[prevenient grace]] and its synergistic nature.{{sfn|Reymond|2010|loc=ch. Who saves men?}} The ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'' (1992) teaches that the ability of the [[human will]] to respond to divine grace is itself conferred by grace.{{sfn|John Paul II|1993|loc=item 2001|ps=. "The preparation of man for the reception of grace is already a work of grace."}}{{sfn|John Paul II|1993|loc=item 1742|ps=. "By the working of grace the Holy Spirit educates us in spiritual freedom in order to make us free collaborators in his work in the Church and in the world".}} This synergistic process applies to both [[Justification (theology)|justification]] and [[Sanctification in Christianity|sanctification]].{{sfn|Kirkpatrick|2018|p=223|ps=. "[Sungenis] is showing how baptism is the entry point into justification, that righteousness is something progressively attained synergistically, and that sanctification and justification belong together as one in the same end."}}{{sfn|LWF&RCC|2019|ps=. "When Catholics say that persons 'cooperate' in preparing for and accepting justification by consenting to God's justifying action, they see such personal consent as itself an effect of grace, not as an action arising from innate human abilities."}} The [[sacraments of the Catholic Church]] such as [[baptism]] and the [[Eucharist]], are part of God's grace and are thus a vital element in the synergistic process of salvation.{{sfn|Reymond|2010|loc=ch. How does God saves men?|ps=. "Rome holds that through the foundational sacraments of baptism the sinner is delivered from the liability of original sin, and through the sacraments of the Mass and of penance the liabilities of postbaptismal sins are removed. The ''institutional church'' becomes then through its sacramental ministrations the sources and conveyer of saving grace to men [...]".}}

==== Eastern Orthodox theology ====
In [[Eastern Orthodox]] theology, God's grace and the human response work together in a "cooperation" or "[[synergy]]".{{sfn|Ware|1993|loc=PT274|ps=. "To describe the relation between the grace of God and human freedom, Orthodoxy uses the term cooperation or synergy (''synergeia''); in Paul's words, 'We are fellow-workers (''synergoi'') with God' (1 Corinthians iii, 9). If we are to achieve full fellowship with God, we cannot do so without God's help, yet we must also play our own part: we humans as well as God must make our contribution to the common work, although what God does is of immeasurably greater importance than what we do."}} This perspective has historically presented less theological tension on this issue compared to the [[Christian West]].{{sfn|Payton Jr.|2010|p=151|ps=. "In Eastern Christian understanding of synergy, God's grace and human response work together without the questions of rivalry that have bedeviled the Western Christian disagreement about monergism and synergism."}} In the salvation process, divine grace always precedes any human action.{{sfn|Overbeck|1899|loc=Decree 14|ps=. "For the regenerated to do spiritual good — for the works of the believer being contributory to salvation and wrought by supernatural grace are properly called spiritual — it is necessary that he be guided and prevented [preceded] by grace."}} Man possesses [[Libertarianism (metaphysics)|libertarian freedom]] (as implied by the [[Gnomic will]]) and must consciously respond to divine grace.{{sfn|Payton Jr.|2010|p=151|loc={{zwnj}}|ps=. "[H]uman beings always have the freedom to choose, in their personal (gnomic) wills, whether to walk with God or turn from Him".}} This understanding is similar to the [[Arminianism|Arminian]] protestant synergism.{{sfn|Stamoolis|2010|p=138|ps=. "A further concession is made, one that could easily be made by an Arminian Protestant who shared the Orthodox understanding of synergism (i.e., regeneration as the fruit of free will's cooperation with grace): 'The Orthodox emphasis on the importance of the human response toward the grace of God, which at the same time clearly rejects salvation by works, is a healthy synergistic antidote to any antinomian tendencies that might result from (distorted) juridical understandings of salvation'."}} The Orthodox synergistic process of salvation includes baptism as a response to divine grace.{{sfn|Stamoolis|2010|p=74|ps=. "In orthodox baptismal theology, [...] the candidate for baptism merely responds to and cooperates with that divine grace by actively welcoming it into his or her heart by faith and then living out the baptism through active obedience on that same principle of unmeritable synergism."}} Deification, or [[Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)|''theosis'']], is also an integral part of this process.{{sfn|Stamoolis|2010|p=74|loc={{zwnj}}|ps=. "Faith is both a divine gift and the free response of the human person. [...] This is the basis for Orthodox asceticism and its goal of deification (theosis) as the content of salvation."}}

==== Anabaptist theology ====
{{further|Anabaptist theology}}
[[Anabaptist]]s hold to synergism,{{sfn|Bloesch|2005|p=362|ps=. "Yet the polarity seems to fall between Reformation monergism (esp. Calvinist) and Anabaptist and Wesleyan synergism."}} teaching that "both God and man play real and necessary parts in the reconciling relationship which binds them."{{sfn|Hill|2020|p=129}} Anabaptists have a high view of the moral capacities of humans when "enlivened by the active agency of the Holy Spirit".{{sfn|Hill|2020|p=129}}

==== Arminian theology ====
Christians who adhere to [[Arminian]] theology, such as [[Methodists]], believe that salvation is synergistic.{{sfn|Olson|2002|p=281|ps=. "John Wesley, founder of the Methodist tradition, was also a synergist with regard to salvation."}} [[Jacobus Arminius]] first emphasized the role of [[prevenient grace]], which involves a [[monergistic]] act of God, followed by "subsequent" act involving a synergistic work.{{sfn|Stanglin|McCall|2012|p=152}} Thus, for Arminians, prevenient grace involves a synergistic process.{{sfn|Olson|2009|p=18|ps=. "When Arminian synergism is referred to, I am referring to evangelical synergism, which affirms the prevenience of grace to every human exercise of a good will toward God, including simple nonresistance to the saving work of Christ."}} Similarly, [[John Wesley]] held that salvation begins with divine initiative.{{sfn|Lowery|2008|loc=ch. A more Naturalized Interpretation of Grace|ps=. "Although Wesley believes that salvation begins with divine initiative, he still places great emphasis on human responsibility. As such, salvation itself should be viewed as a synergism initiated by God".}} Additionally, [[Wesleyan-Arminian theology]] teaches that both [[Justification (theology)|justification]] and [[Sanctification in Christianity|sanctification]] are synergistic.{{sfn|Fahlbusch|2008|p=272|ps=. "Methodist 'synergism' is grounded in the conviction that in the justification begun in the new birth (the beginning of the divine work), there will have to be 'appropriate fruits'."}} The Arminian perspective on salvation is often described as "God-initiated synergism".{{sfn|Lowery|2008|loc=ch. A more Naturalized Interpretation of Grace|ps=. "Although Wesley believes that salvation begins with divine initiative, he still places great emphasis on human responsibility. As such, salvation itself should be viewed as a synergism initiated by God".}} This perspective aligns closely with the main characteristic of the early Semi-Augustinian thought.{{sfn|Bounds|2011|pp=39–43}}{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xxvii|loc={{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}|ps=. "God-initiated synergism is the view of the Semi-Augustinians".}}

==== Semi-Pelagian view ====
[[Semi-Pelagianism]] is present in many current [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] denominations.{{sfn|Olson|2009|p=30|ps=. "Today, semi-Pelagianism is the default theology of most American evangelical Christians."}} It holds that a person can initiate [[Faith in Christianity|faith]] independently, without [[prevenient grace]], while its continuation through [[Regeneration (theology)|regeneration]] depends on God’s grace.{{Sfn|Pohle|1912}}{{sfn|Stanglin|McCall|2012|p=160}}{{sfn|Lambert|2005}} This has led to its characterization as "human-initiated synergism".{{sfn|Barrett|2013|loc={{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}|p=xxvii|ps=. "[H]uman-initiated synergism is the view of Semi-Pelagianism".}} After the [[Reformation]], [[Reformed Christianity|Reformed]] theologians used the term "Semi-Pelagianism" to describe both "Semi-Pelagianism" and "Semi-Augustininianism," the latter being a divine-initiated synergism.{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xxvii|loc={{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}|ps=. "God-initiated synergism is the view of the Semi-Augustinians".}}{{sfn|Marko|2020|p=772|ps=. "Those who did not think a prevenient grace was necessary for initial human response or that it was resistible came to be called semi-Pelagians by Protestants in the post Reformation period."}}

=== Denominations traditionally upholding monergism ===
==== Lutheran theology ====
[[Martin Luther]] (1483-1546) limited [[monergism]] strictly to [[soteriological]] aspects.{{sfn|Straton|2020|p=159|ps=. "Luther: A person's will is in bondage to sin and cannot, without the grace of God, respond to the gospel. However, apart from salvation-related issues, people can choose freely".}} He asserted that monergism applied to both election (to salvation) and [[reprobation]].{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=ch. 9.2|ps=. "In fact, Luther affirmed both election and reprobation in the strongest terms."}}{{sfn|Sammons|2020|p=60|ps=. "Luther presents double predestination clearly, basing it on his understanding of God."}} [[Philip Melanchthon]] (1497-1560), however, rejected monergism after Luther's death in favor of synergism.{{sfn|Bente|1921|loc=ch. 14.154|ps=. "Melanchthon repudiated the monergism of Luther, espoused and defended the powers of free will in spiritual matters, and thought, argued, spoke, and wrote in terms of synergism. Indeed, Melanchthon must be regarded as the father of both synergism and the rationalistic methods employed in its defense, and as the true father also of the modern rationalistico-synergistic theology represented by such distinguished men as Von Hofmann, Thomasius, Kahnis, Luthardt."}} Melanchthon's stance influenced many Lutherans of his time throughout Europe to adopt synergism.{{sfn|Olson|2009|p=14|ps=. "Because of Melanchthon's influence on post-Luther Lutheranism, many Lutherans throughout Europe adopted a synergistic outlook on salvation, eschewing unconditional predestination and affirming that grace is resistible".}} The "synergistic controversy" arose when [[Gnesio-Lutherans]], citing Luther's monergistic stance, opposed John Pfeffinger's synergistic views on the role of human will in conversion.{{sfn|Kolb|1973|p=263}}

By 1580, Melanchthon's view had lost prominence, and the ''[[Book of Concord]]'' (1580) affirmed soteriological monergism in relation to election (to salvation), but explicitly rejected its application to reprobation.{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=[https://archive.org/details/michael-horton-the-christian-faith-a-systematic-theology-for-pilgrims-on-the-way/page/n465/mode/2up ch. 9.2]|ps=. "In fact, Luther affirmed both election and reprobation in the strongest terms. The Lutheran confessions, however, affirm God's unconditional election of those on Whom he will mercy but deny his reprobation of the rest as an actual decreee. The confessional Lutheran and Reformed theologies differ with respect to the decree of reprobation, the extent of atonement, and the resistibility of God´s grace, they are united in their defense of soteriological ''monergism'' (i.e., God alone working in salvation), grounded in his unconditional election of sinners in Jesus Christ." [emphasis in original].}} Accordingly, the contemporary [[Lutheran Church]] continues to uphold this view.{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=ch. 9.2, n. 11}}{{sfn|Sammons|2020|p=62|ps=. "While there are some in the Lutheran tradition who adhere to single predestination, it is apparent that Luther himself did not."}} While monergism remains the official stance, Lutheran history includes both monergist and synergist views.{{sfn|Pinson|2022|p=147|ps=. "Despite the fact that many scholars neatly divide Lutherans into "monergistic" and "synergistic" camps, no good Lutheran ever wanted to be known as a synergist. This include famous scholastic Lutherans such as Aegidius Hunnius, Johann Gerhard, and Johannes Andreas Quendstedt. Most Lutherans throughout history have believed like Melanchthon, that [...] God personally elects individuals in eternity past ''intuitu Christi meriti fide apprehendi''. This is precisely what Arminius believed."}}{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=ch. 9.2, n. 11}}

==== Reformed theology ====
In orthodox [[Reformed Christianity|Reformed]] theology, divine monergism is understood as operating through an exhaustive [[divine providence]].{{sfn|Robinson|2022|p=379|ps=. "[T]he heart of Calvinism is as monergism that effectively makes God the sole actor in human history [...]".}} For example, [[Huldrych Zwingli]] (1484–1531) viewed that everything, including human salvation and reprobation, was [[Theological determinism|determined]] by God.{{sfn|James|1998b|ps=. "Zwingli attributes both to the divine will in the same way, constructing an absolutely symmetrical doctrine of double predestination. The cause and means of both election and reprobation are precisely the same. For Zwingli, God is the exclusive and immediate cause of all things."}} In contrast, "libertarian Calvinism", a revision described by [[Oliver D. Crisp]] in his book ''Deviant Calvinism'' (2014), is a [[soteriological]] monergism.{{sfn|Olson|2015|ps=. "Crisp’s “libertarian Calvinism” is not consistent with the vast majority of modern and contemporary Calvinisms in the U.S., [...] And it is not acceptable to Arminians because of its soteriological monergism [...]".}} Historically, this perspective has remained a minority view within Calvinism.{{sfn|Moreland|2001|p=155|ps=. "Indeed, throughout history there have been Calvinists who have accepted libertarian freedom for non-moral or non-salvific decisions".}}

==== Anglican theology ====
[[Anglicanism]] originally inclined toward monergism due to its [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] and Calvinist heritage, but it eventually accommodated both monergistic and synergistic interpretations.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=617}}{{sfn|Olson|1999|p=535|ps=. "Many Anglicans follow Richard Hooker's brand of synergism{{nbsp}}[...]".}} The [[Thirty-nine Articles of Religion]], finalized in 1571, serve as the confession of faith for the Anglican tradition.{{sfn|EncyclopaediaE|2021}} They reflect a complex interplay of [[Calvinist]] influence, [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] practice, and intentional ambiguity within individual articles.{{sfn|Milton|2002|p=396}}{{sfn|McClintock|Strong|1880}} Today, in some Anglican denominations, [[Anglican clergy|clergy]] are required to acknowledge the Articles, while in others, they are not.{{sfn|EncyclopaediaE|2021}}

Anglicanism has historically leaned more toward monergism, particularly in its early phases.{{sfn|Salter|2018|ps=. "The code and creed of Anglicanism is richly Trinitarian (divine self-disclosure), soteriologically monergistic (grace alone), and warmly pastoral (godly care) in its approach to the people it serves within and beyond the bounds of its membership."}} Early Anglican leaders such as [[Thomas Cranmer]] (1489–1556) held Reformed views that significantly shaped the Church’s initial doctrinal direction.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=617}} However, following the [[Stuart Restoration]] (1660) through the mid-18th century, Calvinist theology became less prominent within Anglicanism.{{sfn|Griffith|Radcliff|2022|p=1|ps=. "From the Restoration to the mid-eighteenth century Calvinist theology was hardly evident in Anglicanism."}} Afterward, the [[Evangelical Anglicanism|Evangelical movement]] within Anglicanism revived and emphasized its [[English Reformation|Reformed]] roots.{{Sfn|Chapman|2006|p=68}} Related groups like the [[Church Society]] tend to interpret Article 10 of the Thirty-nine Articles in a monergistic sense.{{sfn|Woolford|2017|ps=. "Article 10 underwrites ''monergistic'' (from ''mono'' — ‘one,’ and ''ergo'' — ‘to work’) doctrine of justification. [...] It teaches that our state of spiritual death — the utter inability of the bound human will — means that ''everything'' that goes into our coming to spiritual life ''has'' to belong to God. His is the whole initiative; his is the decisive, effective will."}}

Conversely, [[High church]] and [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholic]] traditions have tended toward synergism, drawing on the theology of the [[early Church Fathers]] and emphasizing the [[sacramental]] life, human [[Free will in theology|free will]], and cooperation with divine [[Grace in Christianity|grace]]. Proto-[[Arminianism|Arminian]] figures like [[Lancelot Andrewes]] (1555–1626) and [[Jeremy Taylor]] (1613–1667) upheld the importance of the human response to God’s call.{{sfn|McClintock|Strong|1880}} In the 18th and 19th centuries, theologians such as [[George Pretyman Tomline]] (1750–1827) and [[Harold Browne]] (1811–1891) also interpreted Article 10 in a synergistic light.{{sfn|Browne|1865|pp=280-281|ps=. "The doctrine of Scripture, however, is evidently expressed in the words of our Article [X]. God must give the will, must set the will free from its natural slavery, before it can turn to good; but then it moves in the freedom which He has bestowed upon it, and never so truly uses that freedom, as when it follows the motions of the Spirit. Yet clearly there remains some power to resist and to do evil. For, though “those that have no will to good things God maketh them to will; [...] Yet, nevertheless, He enforceth not the will.”"}}{{sfn|Tomline|1818|pp=251-255|ps=. "The joint agency of God and man, in the work of human salvation, is pointed out in the following passage: "Let us work out our own salvation with fear and trembling; for it is God that worketh in us both to will and to do of his good pleasure" [...] some sects contend for the irresistible impulses of grace [...] [this] opinion seems irreconcilable with the free agency of man [...] let the will of man be admitted to be its handmaid, but such an one as is free [...] when it is freely excited by the admonitions of preventing grace, when it is prepared as to its affections, strengthened and assisted as to its powers and faculties, a man freely and willingly co-operates with God".}}