Editing Tahmasp I (section)

== {{Anchor|Reign}}Reign ==

=== {{anchor|War with Ottomans}}Ottoman war ===
{{Further|Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555)}}
[[File:Qajar painted and printed cotton pictorial kalamkar panel depicting Shah Tahmasp I and his men in battle, signed Sheikh Ali, Iran, second half 19th century.jpg|thumb|Qajar painted and printed cotton pictorial [[Kalamkari|kalamkar]] panel depicting Tahmasp I in battle, surrounded by various other warriors, signed Sheikh Ali, Iran, second half 19th century.]]
[[Suleiman the Magnificent]] ({{reign|1520|1566}}), sultan of the Ottoman Empire, may have considered a strong Safavid empire a threat to his ambitious plans in the west and northwest of his realm. During the first decade of Tahmasp's reign, however, he was preoccupied with fighting the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburgs]] and the unsuccessful [[Siege of Vienna (1529)|attempt to seize Vienna]].{{Sfn|Roemer|2008|p=241}} In 1532, while the Ottomans were fighting in Hungary, Suleiman sent Olama Beg Takkalu with 50,000 troops under Fil Pasha to Iran.{{Sfn|Mitchell|2009b}} Olama Beg was one of many Takkalu members who, after Chuha's death, took refuge in the Ottoman Empire.{{Sfn|Newman|2008|p=26–27}} The Ottomans seized Tabriz and Kurdistan, and tried to obtain support from [[Gilan province]].{{Sfn|Newman|2008|p=28}} Tahmasp drove the Ottomans out, but news of another Uzbek invasion prevented him from defeating them.{{Sfn|Mitchell|2009b}} Suleiman sent his grand vizier, [[Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha|Ibrahim Pasha]], to occupy Tabriz in July 1534 and joined him two months later.{{Sfn|Roemer|2008|p=241}} Suleiman peacefully conquered Baghdad and Shia cities such as [[Najaf]].{{Sfn|Newman|2008|p=28}} Whilst the Ottomans were on the march, Tahmasp was in Balkh, campaigning against the Uzbeks.{{Sfn|Mitchell|2009b}}

The first Ottoman invasion caused the greatest crisis of Tahmasp's reign. Its events however are difficult to reconstruct; on an unknown date, an agent from the Shamlu tribe unsuccessfully tried to poison Tahmasp; they revolted against the shah, who had recently asserted his authority by removing Hossein Khan.{{Sfn|Roemer|2008|p=242}}{{Sfn|Streusand|2019|p=148}} Seeking to dethrone Tahmasp, they chose one of his younger brothers, Sam Mirza (who had a Shamlu guardian) as their candidate. The rebels then contacted Suleiman and asked him for support in enthroning Sam Mirza, who promised to follow a pro-Ottoman policy.{{Sfn|Mitchell|2009b}} Suleiman recognised him as ruler of Iran, which panicked Tahmasp's court.{{Sfn|Streusand|2019|p=148}} Tahmasp reconquered the seized territory when Suleiman went to [[Mesopotamia]], and Suleiman led another campaign against him. Tahmasp attacked his rearguard, and Suleiman was forced to retreat to [[Istanbul]] at the end of 1535 after losing all his gains except Baghdad.{{Sfn|Roemer|2008|p=242}} After confronting the Ottomans, Tahmasp rushed to Khorasan to defeat his brother. Sam Mirza surrendered and sought mercy from Tahmasp. The shah accepted his brother's pleads and banished him to Qazvin but otherwise executed many of his advisors, namely, his Shamlu guardian.{{Sfn|Tucker|2021|p=549}}

[[File:Elkas_Mirza.jpg|alt=A seated Suleiman the Magnificent, surrounded by other people|thumb|left|Alqas Mirza and Suleiman the Magnificent. Illustration from the ''[[Süleymanname]].'']]

Relations with the Ottomans remained hostile until the revolt of [[Alqas Mirza]], another one of Tahmasp's younger brothers, who had led the Safavid army during the 1534–35 Ottoman invasion and was governor of [[Safavid Shirvan|Shirvan]].{{Sfn|Fleischer|1985}} He led an unsuccessful revolt against Tahmasp, who conquered [[Derbent|Derbant]] in the spring of 1547 and appointed his son [[Ismail II|Ismail]] as governor.{{Sfn|Ghereghlou|2016a}} Alqas fled to [[Crimean Khanate|Crimea]] with his remaining forces and took refuge with Suleiman. He promised to restore Sunni Islam in Iran and encouraged the Sultan to lead another campaign against Tahmasp.{{Sfn|Roemer|2008|p=242–243}}{{Sfn|Mitchell|2009a|p=79}} The new invasion sought the quick capture of Tabriz in July 1548; it soon became clear, however, that Alqas Mirza's claims of support from all the Qizilbash leaders were untrue. The long campaign focused on looting, plundering Hamadan, [[Qom]], and [[Kashan]] before being stopped at Isfahan.{{Sfn|Mitchell|2009b}} Tahmasp did not fight the exhausted Ottoman army but laid waste the entire region from Tabriz to the frontier; the Ottomans could not permanently occupy the captured lands, since they soon ran out of supplies.{{Sfn|Savory|Bosworth|2012}}

Eventually, Alqas Mirza was captured on the battlefield and imprisoned in a fortress, where he died. Suleiman ended his campaign, and by the fall of 1549 the remaining Ottoman forces retreated.{{Sfn|Roemer|2008|p=243}} The Ottoman sultan launched his last campaign against the Safavids in May 1554, when [[Ismail II|Ismail Mirza]] (Tahmasp's son) invaded eastern Anatolia and defeated Erzerum governor Iskandar Pasha. Suleiman marched from [[Diyarbakır|Diyarbakr]] towards Armenian [[Karabakh]] and reconquered the lost lands.{{Sfn|Roemer|2008|p=243–244}} Tahmasp divided his army into four corps and sent each in a different direction, indicating a Safavid army that had grown much larger than it was in the previous wars. With Tahmasp's Safavids holding the advantage, Suleiman had to retreat.{{Sfn|Savory|2007|p=63}} The Ottomans negotiated the [[Peace of Amasya]], in which Tahmasp recognised Ottoman sovereignty in Mesopotamia and much of Kurdistan; furthermore, as an act of obeisance towards Sunni Islam and Sunnis, he banned the holding of {{Transliteration|Fa|[[Omar Koshan]]}} (a festival commemorating the assassination of the second caliph [[Umar|Umar ibn al-Khattab]]) and expressing hatred towards the [[Rashidun|Rashidun caliphs]], who are held dear by the Sunni Muslims. The Ottomans allowed Iranian pilgrims to travel freely to [[Mecca]], [[Medina]], [[Karbala]], and Najaf.{{Sfn|Newman|2008|p=28}}{{Sfn|Köhbach|1985}} Through this treaty, Iran had time to increase its forces and resources as its western provinces had the opportunity to recuperate from the war.{{Sfn|Köhbach|1985}} This peace also demarcated the Ottoman-Safavid frontier in the north-west without the cession of large areas of territory on the Safavid side.{{Sfn|Savory|Bosworth|2012}} These terms, in circumstances favourable to the Safavids, were evidence of the frustration felt by Suleiman the Magnificent at his inability to inflict a greater defeat on the Safavids.{{Sfn|Savory|Bosworth|2012}}

=== Georgian campaigns ===
{{Further|Tahmasp I's campaigns in Kartili and Kakheti}}

Tahmasp was interested in the [[Caucasus]], especially Georgia, for two reasons: to reduce the influence of the Ostajlu tribe (who kept their lands in southern Georgia and Armenia after the 1526 civil war) and a desire for booty, similar to that of his father. Since the Georgians were mainly Christian, he used the pretext of {{Transliteration|ar|[[Jihad]]}} (Islamic armed struggle against nonbelievers) to justify the invasion.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|2007|pages=65}}; {{harvnb|Panahi|2015|pages=52}}.</ref> Between 1540 and 1553, Tahmasp led four [[I Tahmasp's marches in Kartli and Kakheti|campaigns]] against the Georgian kingdoms.{{Sfn|Savory|2007|p=64}} The Safavid army looted [[Tbilisi]], including its churches and the wives and children of the nobility, in the first campaign.{{Sfn|Hitchins|2000}} Tahmasp also forced the governor of Tbilisi, Golbad, to convert to Islam. The [[Kingdom of Kartli|King of Kartli]], [[Luarsab I of Kartli|Luarsab I]] ({{reign|1527/1534|1556/1558}}), managed to escape and went to hiding during Tahmasp's raiding.{{Sfn|Maeda|2021|p=129}} During his second invasion, ostensibly to ensure the stability of Georgian territory, he looted the farms and subjugated [[Levan of Kakheti]] ({{reign|1518/1520|1574}}).{{Sfn|Panahi|2015|p=46}} One year before the Peace of Amasya in 1554, Tahmasp led his last military campaign into the Caucasus. Throughout his campaigns, he took many prisoners, and this time he brought 30,000 [[Georgians]] to Iran. Luarsab's mother, Nestan Darejan was captured during these campaigns, but committed suicide upon incarceration.{{Sfn|Maeda|2021|p=130}} The descendants of these prisoners formed a "third force" in the Safavid administration and bureaucracy with the Turkomans and Persians and became a main rival to the other two during the later years of the Safavid Empire.{{Sfn|Hitchins|2000}} Although this "third force" came to power two generations later during the reign of Tahmasp's grandson, [[Abbas the Great]] ({{Reign|1588|1629}}), it began infiltrating Tahmasp's army during the second quarter of his reign as {{Transliteration|Fa|[[Ghilman|gholams]]}} (slave warriors) and {{Transliteration|Fa|[[Qurchi (royal bodyguard)|qorchis]]}} (royal bodyguards of the shah) and became more influential at the apex of the Safavid empire.{{Sfn|Roemer|2008|p=246}}

In 1555, following the Peace of Amasya, eastern Georgia remained in Iranian hands and western Georgia was ruled by the Turks.{{Sfn|Mikaberidze|2015|p=xxxi}} Never again did Tahmasp appear on the Caucasus frontier after the treaty. Instead, the Governor of Georgia, [[Shahverdi Sultan]], represented Safavid power north of the [[Aras (river)|Aras River]].{{Sfn|Maeda|2021|p=130}} Tahmasp sought to establish his dominance by imposing several Iranian political and social institutions and placing converts to Islam on the thrones of Kartli and [[Kingdom of Kakheti|Kakheti]]; one was [[David XI of Kartli|Davud Khan]], brother of [[Simon I of Kartli]] ({{Reign|1556|1569|1578|1599}}).{{Sfn|Hitchins|2000}} Son of Levan of Kakheti, [[Prince Jesse of Kakheti|Prince Jesse]] also appeared in Qazvin during the 1560s and converted to Islam. In return, Tahmasp granted him favours and gifts. The prince was given the old royal palace for his residence in Qazvin, and became the governor of [[Shaki, Azerbaijan|Shaki]] and adjacent territories.{{Sfn|Maeda|2021|p=130}} The conversion of these Georgian princes did not dissuade the Georgian forces who tried to reconquer Tbilisi under Simon I and his father, Luarsab I of Kartli, in the [[Battle of Garisi]]; the battle ended in a [[stalemate]], with Luarsab and the Safavid commander Shahverdi Sultan both slain in battle.{{Sfn|Roemer|2008|p=245}}

=== Royal refugees ===
[[File:Tahmasp,_Humayun_Meeting.jpg|alt=Tahmasp and Humayun at a spring New Year festival, surrounded by other people|thumb|upright=1.2|Tahmasp and Humayun at a Nowruz festival ([[Chehel Sotoun]], [[Isfahan]])]]
One of the most celebrated events of Tahmasp's reign was the visit of [[Humayun]] ({{Reign|1530|1540}}), the eldest son of [[Babur]] ({{Reign|1526|1530}}) and emperor of the [[Mughal Empire]], who faced rebellions by his brothers.{{Sfn|Savory|2007|p=66}} Humayun fled to Herat, travelled through [[Mashhad]], [[Nishapur]], [[Sabzevar]], and [[Qazvin]], and met Tahmasp at [[Soltaniyeh]] in 1544.{{Sfn|Thackston|2004}} Tahmasp honoured Homayun as a guest and gave him an illustrated version of [[Saadi Shirazi|Saadi]]'s ''[[Gulistan (book)|Gulistan]]'' dating back to the reign of [[Abu Sa'id Mirza]] ({{Reign|1451|1469|1459|1469}}), Humayun's great-grandfather;{{Sfn|Eraly|2000|p=104}}{{Sfn|Soudavar|2017|p=49}} however, he refused to give him political assistance unless he converted to Shia Islam. Humayun reluctantly agreed, but reverted to Sunni Islam when he returned to India; however he did not force the Iranian Shias, who came with him to India, to convert.{{Sfn|Savory|2007|p=66}} Tahmasp also demanded a ''[[quid pro quo]]'' in which the city of [[Kandahar]] would be given to his infant son, Morad Mirza.{{Sfn|Thackston|2004}}{{Sfn|Savory|2007|p=66–67}} Humayun spent [[Nowruz]] in the Shah's court and left in 1545 with an army provided by Tahmasp to regain his lost lands; his first conquest was Kandahar, which he ceded to the young Safavid prince.<ref>{{harvnb|Thackston|2004}}; {{harvnb|Streusand|2019|pages=148}}.</ref> Morad Mirza soon died, however, and the city became a bone of contention between the two empires: the Safavids claimed that it had been given to them in [[perpetuity]], while the Mughals maintained that it had been an [[appanage]] that expired with the death of the prince.{{Sfn|Thackston|2004}} Tahmasp began the first Safavid expedition to Kandahar in 1558, after the death of Humayun, and reconquered the city.{{Sfn|Streusand|2019|p=148}}

Another notable visitor to Tahmasp's court was [[Şehzade Bayezid]], the fugitive Ottoman prince who rebelled against his father, Suleiman the Magnificent, and went to the Shah in the autumn 1559 with an army of 10,000 to persuade him to begin a war against the Ottomans.{{Sfn|Savory|2007|p=67}} Although he honoured Bayezid, Tahmasp did not want to disturb the Peace of Amasya.{{Sfn|Faroqhi|Fleet|2013|p=446}}{{Sfn|Mitchell|2009a|p=126}} Suspecting that Bayezid was planning a coup, he had him arrested and returned to the Ottomans; Bayezid and his children were immediately executed.{{Sfn|Savory|2007|p=67}}

=== Later life and death ===
[[File:Iran, Qazvin, Safavid period - Shah Tahmasp I (1514-1576) Seated in a Landscape - 1917.1078 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|left|thumb|alt=Painting of an aged Tahmasp sitting outdoors under a tree|An aged Shah Tahmasp, painted {{circa|1575}}, Qazvin]]

Although Tahmasp rarely left Qazvin from the Peace of Amasya in 1555 to his death in 1576, he was still active during this period. A 1564 rebellion in Herat was suppressed by Masum Bek and the Khorasan governors, but the region remained troubled and was raided by the Uzbeks two years later.{{Sfn|Newman|2008|p=38–39}} Tahmasp became seriously ill in 1574 and neared death twice in two months.{{Sfn|Savory|2007|p=67}} Since he had not chosen a crown prince, the question of succession was raised by members of the royal family and Qizilbash leaders. His favourite son, [[Haydar Mirza Safavi|Haydar Mirza]], was supported by the Ustajlu tribe and the powerful Georgian court faction; the imprisoned prince Ismail Mirza was supported by [[Pari Khan Khanum]], Tahmasp's influential daughter.{{Sfn|Roemer|2008|p=247}}{{Efn|Ismail Mirza had been imprisoned since 1557. Different reasons are suggested as to why the shah had put him in jail; amongst them being his paranoia of Ismail, Ismail's recurrent attacks on the Ottoman borderlands, thus being a threat to the Peace of Amasya, and being under the influence of his grand vizier Ma'sum Beg Safavi (who was also the {{transliteration|fa|lala}} to Haydar Mirza).<ref>{{harvnb|Ghereghlou|2016a}}; {{harvnb|Hinz|1992|page=24, 26, 32–37}}; {{harvnb|Mitchell|2009a|p=145}}</ref>}} The pro-Haydar faction tried to eliminate Ismail by winning the favour of the castellan of [[Qahqaheh Castle]] (where Ismail was imprisoned), but Pari Khan learned about the plot and informed Tahmasp; the shah, who was still fond of his son, ordered him to be guarded by [[Afshar people|Afshar]] musketeers.{{Sfn|Pārsādust|2009}}

Tahmasp, recovered from his illness, returned his attention to affairs of state. Remaining court tensions, however, triggered another civil war when the shah died on 14 May 1576 from poisoning.{{Sfn|Roemer|2008|p=248}} The poisoning was blamed on Abu Naser Gilani, a physician who attended Tahmasp when he was ill. According to ''[[Tarikh-e Alam-ara-ye Abbasi]]'', "He unwisely sought recognition of his superior status vis-à-vis the other physicians; as a result, when Tahmasp died, Abu Nasr was accused of treachery in the treatment he had prescribed, and he was put to death within the palace by members of the {{Transliteration|Tr|qurchi}}".{{Sfn|Savory|Bosworth|2012}} Tahmasp I had the longest reign of any member of the Safavid dynasty: nine days short of fifty-two years.{{Sfn|Savory|Bosworth|2012}} He died without a designated heir and the two factions in his court clashed for the throne. Haydar Mirza was murdered not long after his father's death, and Ismail Mirza became king and was crowned Ismail II ({{Reign|1576|1577}}). Less than two months after his enthronement, Ismail ordered a mass purge of all male members of the royal family. Only Mohammad Khodabanda, already nearly blind, and his three toddler sons survived this purge.{{Sfn|Ghereghlou|2016a}}