Editing Timeline of meteorology (section)

==19th century==
[[File:Woodbridge isothermal chart3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Isothermal chart of the world created 1823 by [[William Channing Woodbridge]] using the work of [[Alexander von Humboldt]].]]
* 1800 – The [[Voltaic pile]] was the first modern electric battery, invented by [[Alessandro Volta]], which led to later inventions like the telegraph.
* 1802–1803 – [[Luke Howard]] writes ''On the Modification of Clouds'' in which he assigns [[List of cloud types|cloud types]] [[Latin]] names. Howard's system establishes three physical categories or ''forms'' based on appearance and process of formation: ''cirriform'' (mainly detached and wispy), ''cumuliform'' or [[atmospheric convection|convective]] (mostly detached and heaped, rolled, or rippled), and non-convective ''stratiform'' (mainly continuous layers in sheets). These are cross-classified into ''lower'' and ''upper'' levels or étages. Cumuliform clouds forming in the lower level are given the genus name [[cumulus cloud|cumulus]] from the Latin word for ''heap'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/cumulus|title=Cumulus |work=The Free Dictionary |publisher=Farlex |access-date=2014-12-13}}</ref> while low stratiform clouds are given the genus name [[stratus cloud|stratus]] from the Latin word for a flattened or spread out ''sheet''.  Cirriform clouds are identified as always upper level and given the genus name [[cirrus cloud|cirrus]] from the Latin for ''hair''. From this genus name, the prefix ''cirro-'' is derived and attached to the names of upper level cumulus and stratus, yielding the names [[cirrocumulus cloud|cirrocumulus]], and [[cirrostratus cloud|cirrostratus]].<ref name="Clouds">{{cite web | url =http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/8/6/No._01_-_Clouds.pdf| title=Fact sheet No. 1 – Clouds | year=2013 | access-date=21 November 2013 | publisher = Met Office (U.K.)}}</ref> In addition to these individual cloud types; Howard adds two names to designate cloud systems consisting of more than one form joined together or located in very close proximity.  Cumulostratus describes large cumulus clouds blended with stratiform layers in the lower or upper levels.<ref name="Cumulostratus">{{cite web |editor=Royal Meteorological Society |title= Luke Howard and Cloud Names |year= 2015 |url=http://www.rmets.org/weather-and-climate/observing/luke-howard-and-cloud-names |access-date=10 October 2015}}</ref>  The term [[nimbus cloud|nimbus]], taken from the Latin word for ''rain cloud'',<ref name="Clouds"/> is given to complex systems of cirriform, cumuliform, and stratiform clouds with sufficient vertical development to produce significant precipitation,<ref name="Preface">{{cite book |editor=World Meteorological Organization |title=International Cloud Atlas, preface to the 1939 edition. |volume=I |year=1975 |url=https://archive.org/details/manualonobservat00worl/page/ |pages=[https://archive.org/details/manualonobservat00worl/page/ IX–XIII] |publisher=Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization |isbn=978-92-63-10407-6 |access-date=6 December 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Cloud-art">{{cite web |editor=Colorado State University Dept. of Atmospheric Science |title= Cloud Art: Cloud Classification |year=2014 |url=http://cloudsat.atmos.colostate.edu/cloud_art/cloud_classification |access-date=13 December 2014}}</ref> and it comes to be identified as a distinct ''nimbiform'' physical category.<ref>{{cite book | editor=[[Henry Glassford Bell]] | title=Constable's miscellany of original and selected publications|volume=XII| year=1827 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LXZVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA320|page=320}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!Classification of major types: 1803 !! Stratiform !! Cirriform !! Cumulostratiform !! Cumuliform !! Nimbiform
|-

!Upper-level
| Cirrostratus ||Cirrus || || Cirrocumulus ||
|-
!Lower-level
| Stratus || || || Cumulus ||
|-
!Multi-level/vertical
|  || || Cumulostratus ||  || Nimbus
|}

* 1804 – Sir [[John Leslie (physicist)|John Leslie]] observes that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of [[black-body radiation]].
* 1806 – [[Francis Beaufort]] introduces his [[Beaufort scale|system for classifying wind speeds]].
* 1808 – [[John Dalton]] defends caloric theory in ''A New System of Chemistry'' and describes how it combines with matter, especially [[gas]]es; he proposes that the [[heat capacity]] of gases varies inversely with [[atomic weight]].
* 1810 – Sir John Leslie [[freezing|freeze]]s water to ice artificially.
* 1817 – [[Alexander von Humboldt]] publishes a global map of average temperature, the first global climate analysis.
* 1819 – [[Pierre Louis Dulong]] and [[Alexis Thérèse Petit]] give the [[Dulong-Petit law]] for the [[specific heat capacity]] of a [[crystal]].
* 1820 – [[Heinrich Wilhelm Brandes]] publishes the first synoptic weather maps.
:: – [[John Herapath]] develops some ideas in the kinetic theory of gases but mistakenly associates temperature with [[molecule|molecular]] [[momentum]] rather than [[kinetic energy]]; his work receives little attention other than from Joule.
* 1822 – [[Joseph Fourier]] formally introduces the use of [[dimension]]s for physical quantities in his ''Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur''.
* 1824 – [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] analyzes the efficiency of [[steam engine]]s using caloric theory; he develops the notion of a [[reversible process (thermodynamics)|reversible process]] and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, lays the foundation for the [[second law of thermodynamics]].
* 1827 – [[Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)|Robert Brown]] discovers the [[Brownian motion]] of [[pollen]] and dye particles in water.
* 1832 – An electromagnetic telegraph was created by [[Baron Schilling]].
* 1834 – [[Émile Clapeyron]] popularises Carnot's work through a graphical and analytic formulation.
* 1835 – [[Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis]] publishes theoretical discussions of machines with revolving parts and their efficiency, for example the efficiency of waterwheels.<ref name=corps>{{cite journal |author=G-G Coriolis |title=Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps |journal= J. De l'École Royale Polytechnique |volume=15 |pages= 144–154 |year=1835 }}</ref> At the end of the 19th century, meteorologists recognized that the way the Earth's [[rotation]] is taken into account in meteorology is analogous to what Coriolis discussed: an example of [[Coriolis Effect]].
* 1836 – An American scientist, Dr. [[David Alter]], invented the first known American electric telegraph in Elderton, Pennsylvania, one year before the much more popular [[Morse taper|Morse]] telegraph was invented.
* 1837 – [[Samuel Morse]] independently developed an [[electrical telegraph]], an alternative design that was capable of transmitting over long distances using poor quality wire. His assistant, [[Alfred Vail]], developed the [[Morse code]] signaling alphabet with Morse. The first electric telegram using this device was sent by Morse on May 24, 1844, from the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. to the B&O Railroad "outer depot" in [[Baltimore]] and sent the message:
::''[[Samuel Morse#Federal support|What hath God wrought]]''<ref>[[Library of Congress]]. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/sfbmhtml/sfbmtelessay.html The Invention of the Telegraph.] Retrieved on January 1, 2009.</ref>
* 1839 – The ''first commercial'' [[electrical telegraph]] was constructed by Sir [[William Fothergill Cooke]] and entered use on the [[Great Western Railway]]. Cooke and Wheatstone patented it in May 1837 as an alarm system.
* 1840 – [[Elias Loomis]] becomes the first person known to attempt to devise a theory on frontal zones. The idea of fronts do not catch on until expanded upon by the Norwegians in the years following World War I.<ref>David M. Schultz. ''[http://www.cimms.ou.edu/~schultz/sanders/sanders.pdf Perspectives on Fred Sanders's Research on Cold Fronts]'', 2003, revised, 2004, 2006, p. 5. Retrieved on July 14, 2006.</ref>
:: – German meteorologist Ludwig Kaemtz adds [[stratocumulus cloud|stratocumulus]] to Howard's canon as a mostly detached low-étage genus of ''limited'' [[Atmospheric convection|convection]].<ref name="Multi-regime convection">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF00712679|bibcode=1995BoLMe..73..373L| title = A theoretical model of multi-regime convection in a stratocumulus-topped boundary layer| journal = Boundary-Layer Meteorology| volume = 73| issue = 4| pages = 373–409| year = 1995| last1 = Laufersweiler | first1 = M. J. | last2 = Shirer | first2 = H. N. |s2cid=123031505}}</ref> It is defined as having cumuliform and stratiform characteristics integrated into a single layer (in contrast to cumulostratus which is deemed to be composite in nature and can be structured into more than one layer).<ref name="Preface"/>  This eventually leads to the formal recognition of a ''stratocumuliform''<ref name="LANDSAT identification">{{cite web | url =https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19760014556| title=The identification of cloud types in LANDSAT MSS images |author1=E.C. Barrett |author2=C.K. Grant | year=1976 | access-date=22 August 2012 | publisher = [[NASA]]}}</ref> physical category that includes rolled and rippled clouds classified separately from the more freely convective heaped cumuliform clouds.
* 1843 – [[John James Waterston]] fully expounds the kinetic theory of gases, but is ridiculed and ignored.
:: – [[James Prescott Joule]] experimentally finds the mechanical equivalent of heat.
* 1844 – [[Lucien Vidi]] invented the aneroid, from Greek meaning ''without liquid'', [[barometer]].<ref name=r1>{{cite book|author1=Louis Figuier|author2=Émile Gautier|title=L'Année scientifique et industrielle|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Cus0AAAAMAAJ|year=1867|publisher=L. Hachette et cie.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Cus0AAAAMAAJ/page/n495 485]–486}}</ref>
* 1845 – [[Francis Ronalds]] invented the first successful camera for [[Photography#Science and forensics|continuous recording]] of the variations in meteorological parameters over time<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph|last=Ronalds|first=B.F.|publisher=Imperial College Press|year=2016|isbn=978-1-78326-917-4|location=London}}</ref>
* 1845 – Francis Ronalds invented and named the storm clock, used to monitor rapid changes in meteorological parameters during extreme events<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ronalds|first=B.F.|date=June 2016|title=Sir Francis Ronalds and the Early Years of the Kew Observatory|journal=Weather|volume=71|issue=6|pages=131–134|doi=10.1002/wea.2739|bibcode=2016Wthr...71..131R|s2cid=123788388 }}</ref>
* 1846 – Cup anemometer invented by Dr. [[John Thomas Romney Robinson]].
* 1847 – [[Francis Ronalds]] and [[William Radcliffe Birt]] described a stable [[Kite#Science and meteorology|kite]] to make observations at altitude using self-recording instruments
* 1847 – [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] publishes a definitive statement of the conservation of energy, the [[first law of thermodynamics]].
:: – The [[Manchester Examiner]] newspaper organises the first weather reports collected by electrical means.<ref>[http://distantwriting.co.uk/companiesandweather.aspx A History of the Telegraph Companies in Britain between 1838 and 1868]. Distantwriting.co.uk. Retrieved on November 6, 2013.</ref>
* 1848 – [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]] extends the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances.
* 1849 – [[Smithsonian Institution]] begins to establish an observation network across the United States, with 150 observers via telegraph, under the leadership of [[Joseph Henry]].<ref>Millikan, Frank Rives, [http://www.si.edu/archives/ihd/jhp/joseph03.htm JOSEPH HENRY: Father of Weather Service] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020020548/http://www.si.edu/archives/ihd/jhp/joseph03.htm |date=October 20, 2006 }}, 1997, Smithsonian Institution</ref>
:: – [[William John Macquorn Rankine]] calculates the correct relationship between [[saturation vapor pressure|saturated vapour pressure]] and [[temperature]] using his ''hypothesis of molecular vortices''.
* 1850 – Rankine uses his ''vortex'' theory to establish accurate relationships between the temperature, [[pressure]], and [[density]] of gases, and expressions for the [[latent heat]] of [[evaporation]] of a liquid; he accurately predicts the surprising fact that the apparent [[specific heat]] of [[saturated steam]] will be negative.
:: – [[Rudolf Clausius]] gives the first clear joint statement of the [[First Law of Thermodynamics|first]] and [[Second Law of Thermodynamics|second law]] of thermodynamics, abandoning the caloric theory, but preserving Carnot's principle.
* 1852 – Joule and Thomson demonstrate that a rapidly expanding gas cools, later named the [[Joule-Thomson effect]].
* 1853 – The first International Meteorological Conference was held in Brussels at the initiative of [[Matthew Fontaine Maury]], U.S. Navy, recommending standard observing times, methods of observation and logging format for weather reports from ships at sea.<ref>[http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=154 Anne E. Egger and Anthony Carpi: "Data collection, analysis, and interpretation: Weather and climate"]. Visionlearning.com (January 2, 2008). Retrieved on 2013-11-06.</ref>
* 1854 – The French astronomer [[Urbain Le Verrier|Leverrier]] showed that a storm in the [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)|Black Sea]] could be followed across Europe and would have been predictable if the telegraph had been used. A service of storm forecasts was established a year later by the [[Paris Observatory]].
:: – Rankine introduces his ''thermodynamic function'', later identified as [[entropy]].
* Mid 1850s – Emilien Renou, director of the Parc Saint-Maur and Montsouris observatories, begins work on an elaboration of Howard's classifications that would lead to the introduction during the 1870s of a newly defined ''middle'' étage .<ref name="Preface"/>  Clouds in this altitude range are given the prefix ''alto-'' derived from the Latin word ''altum'' pertaining to height above the low-level clouds.  This resultes in the genus name [[altocumulus cloud|altocumulus]] for mid-level cumuliform and stratocumuliform types and [[altostratus cloud|altostratus]] for stratiform types in the same altitude range.<ref name="Clouds"/>
* 1856 – [[William Ferrel]] publishes his [[s:An essay on the winds and the currents of the ocean|essay on the winds and the currents of the oceans]].
* 1859 – [[James Clerk Maxwell]] discovers the [[Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution|distribution law of molecular velocities]].
* 1860 – [[Robert FitzRoy]] uses the new telegraph system to gather daily observations from across England and produces the first synoptic charts. He also coined the term "weather forecast" and his were the first ever daily weather forecasts to be published in this year.
:: – After establishment in 1849, 500 U.S. telegraph stations are now making weather observations and submitting them back to the [[Smithsonian Institution]]. The observations are later interrupted by the [[American Civil War]].
* 1865 – [[Josef Loschmidt]] applies Maxwell's theory to estimate the number-density of molecules in gases, given observed gas viscosities.
:: – Manila Observatory founded in the Philippines.<ref name="Dorst" />
* 1869 – [[Joseph Lockyer]] starts the [[scientific journal]] [[Nature (journal)|''Nature'']].
* 1869 – The [[New York Meteorological Observatory]] opens, and begins to record wind, precipitation and temperature data.
* 1870 – The [[National Weather Service|US Weather Bureau]] is founded. Data recorded in several Midwestern cities such as Chicago begins. 
* 1870 – Benito Viñes becomes the head of the Meteorological Observatory at Belen in Havana, Cuba.  He develops the first observing network in Cuba and creates some of the first hurricane-related forecasts.<ref name="Dorst" />
* 1872 – The "Oficina Meteorológica Argentina" (today "Argentinean National Weather Service") is founded.
* 1872 – [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] states the [[Boltzmann equation]] for the temporal development of [[Distribution function (physics)|distribution function]]s in [[phase space]], and publishes his [[H-theorem]].
* 1873 – [[International Meteorological Organization]] formed in [[Vienna]].
:: – United States Army Signal Corp, forerunner of the [[National Weather Service]], issues its first hurricane warning.<ref name="Dorst" />
[[Image:Synoptic chart 1874.png|thumb|right|250px|Synoptic chart from 1874.]]
* 1875 – The [[India Meteorological Department]] is established, after a tropical cyclone struck Calcutta in 1864 and monsoon failures during 1866 and 1871.<ref name="IMD History"/>
* 1876 – [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]] publishes the first of two papers (the second appears in 1878) which discuss phase equilibria, [[statistical ensemble]]s, the [[Thermodynamic free energy|free energy]] as the driving force behind [[chemical reaction]]s, and [[chemical thermodynamics]] in general.
* 1880 – [[Philip Weilbach]], secretary and librarian at the Art Academy in Copenhagen proposes and has accepted by the permanent committee of the [[International Meteorological Organization]] (IMO), a forerunner of the present-day [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO), the designation of a new free-convective vertical or multi-étage genus type, [[cumulonimbus cloud|cumulonimbus]] (heaped rain cloud).  It would be distinct from cumulus and nimbus and identifiable by its often very complex structure (frequently including a cirriform top and what are now recognized as multiple accessory clouds), and its ability to produce thunder. With this addition, a canon of ten tropospheric cloud ''genera'' is established that comes to be officially and universally accepted.<ref name="Preface"/>  Howard's cumulostratus is not included as a distinct type, having effectively been reclassified into its component cumuliform and stratiform genus types already included in the new canon.
* 1881 – Finnish Meteorological Central Office was formed from part of Magnetic Observatory of [[Helsinki University]].
* 1890 – US [[Weather Bureau]] is created as a civilian operation under the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]].
:: – Otto Jesse reveals the discovery and identification of the first clouds known to form above the [[troposphere]].  He proposes the name ''[[noctilucent]]'' which is Latin for ''night shining''.  Because of the extremely high altitudes of these clouds in what is now known to be the [[mesosphere]], they can become illuminated by the sun's rays when the sky is nearly dark after sunset and before sunrise.<ref name="Noctilucent">{{cite book |editor=World Meteorological Organization |title=Noctilucent, International Cloud Atlas |volume=I |year=1975 |url=https://archive.org/details/manualonobservat00worl/page/66 |page=[https://archive.org/details/manualonobservat00worl/page/66 66] |publisher=Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization |isbn=978-92-63-10407-6 |access-date=26 August 2014 }}</ref>
* 1892 – [[William Henry Dines]] invented another kind of [[anemometer]], called the '''pressure-tube (Dines) anemometer'''.  His device measured the difference in pressure arising from wind blowing in a tube versus that blowing across the tube.<ref name="Jacobson" />
:: – The first mention of the term "[[El Niño]]" to refer to climate occurs when Captain Camilo Carrilo told the Geographical society congress in [[Lima]] that Peruvian sailors named the warm northerly current "El Niño" because it was most noticeable around [[Christmas]].
* 1893 – [[Henrik Mohn]] reveals a discovery of [[polar stratospheric cloud|nacreous]] clouds in what is now considered the stratosphere.<ref name="Nacreous">{{cite book |editor=World Meteorological Organization |title=Nacreous, International Cloud Atlas |volume=I |year=1975 |url=https://archive.org/details/manualonobservat00worl/page/65 |page=[https://archive.org/details/manualonobservat00worl/page/65 65] |publisher=Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization |isbn=978-92-63-10407-6 |access-date=26 August 2014 }}</ref>
* 1896 – [[International Meteorological Organization|IMO]] publishes the first [[International cloud atlas]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080107030242/http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/weather/b4163665.html International Cloud-Atlas]. ucsd.edu</ref>
:: – [[Svante Arrhenius]] proposes [[carbon dioxide]] as a key factor to explain the [[ice ages]].
:: – H.H. Clayton proposes formalizing the division of clouds by their physical structures into cirriform, stratiform, "flocciform" (stratocumuliform)<ref name="flocciform">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Cloud}}</ref> and cumuliform. With the later addition of cumulonimbiform, the idea eventually finds favor as an aid in the analysis of satellite cloud images.<ref name="LANDSAT identification"/>
* 1898 – US Weather Bureau established a [[hurricane]] warning network at Kingston, Jamaica.<ref name="Dorst" />