Editing Valles Caldera (section)

==Geoscience==
[[File:Valle Grande, Valles Caldera National Preserve, New Mexico, in winter.jpg|thumb|Cerro la Jara (right) in Valle Grande in winter]]
[[File:Valle Caldera, New Mexico.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Valles Caldera|301x301px]]

The circular [[topographic]] rim of the caldera measures {{convert|13.7|mi}} in diameter.<ref name="volcano"/>  The caldera and surrounding volcanic structures are one of the most thoroughly studied [[caldera]] complexes in the United States.  Research studies have focused on the fundamental processes of [[magma]]tism, [[hydrothermal]] systems, [[ore]] deposition, and glassy rhyolites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kenderes |first1=S. M. |last2=Befus |first2=K. S. |last3=Bryson |first3=A. N. |last4=Whittington |first4=A. G. |date=2022-10-27 |title=Thermal histories and emplacement dynamics of rhyolitic obsidian lavas at Valles caldera, New Mexico |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00445-022-01606-z |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |language=en |volume=84 |issue=11 |pages=98 |doi=10.1007/s00445-022-01606-z |bibcode=2022BVol...84...98K |issn=1432-0819|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Nearly 40 deep cores have been examined, resulting in extensive subsurface data and geothermal information.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

Valles Caldera is the younger of two calderas known at this location, having collapsed over and buried the older '''Toledo Caldera''', which in turn may have collapsed over yet older calderas.  The associated Cerros del Rio [[volcanic field]], which forms the eastern [[Pajarito Plateau]] and the [[Caja del Rio]], is older than the Toledo Caldera. The Toledo and Valles Calderas formed during eruptions 1.61 million and 1.25&nbsp;million years ago, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Izett|first=Glen A.|year=1981|title=Volcanic Ash Beds: Recorders of Upper Cenozoic Silicic Pyroclastic Volcanism in the Western United States|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=86|issue=B11|pages=10200–10222|bibcode=1981JGR....8610200I|doi=10.1029/JB086iB11p10200|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://nmgs.nmt.edu/publications/guidebooks/58|title=Geology of the Jemez Region II|last1=Dethier|first1=David P.|last2=Kampf|first2=Stephanie K.|date=2007|publisher=Ne Mexico Geological Society|page=499 p|access-date=6 November 2015}}</ref> The caldera-forming Toledo eruption emplaced the Otowi member of the [[Bandelier Tuff]] 1.61&nbsp;million years ago, which can be seen along [[canyon]] walls west of Valles Caldera, including [[San Diego Canyon]]. The younger Tshirege Member of the Bandelier Tuff was formed during the Valles Caldera eruption 1.23&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Nasholds |first1=Morgan W. M. |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Matthew J. |date=2022-11-01 |title=High-precision 40Ar/39Ar geochronology and volumetric investigation of volcanism and resurgence following eruption of the Tshirege Member, Bandelier Tuff, at the Valles caldera |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037702732200155X |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |language=en |volume=431 |pages=107624 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2022.107624 |bibcode=2022JVGR..43107624N |s2cid=251076136 |issn=0377-0273|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The now eroded and exposed orange-tan, light-colored Bandelier Tuff from these events creates the stunning [[mesa]]s of the [[Pajarito Plateau]].
[[File:Obsidian.jpg|left|thumb|222x222px|Obsidian with a conchoidal fracture, some weathering, and rust-red coloring. Obsidian is volcanic glass; often black and opaque.]]
Caldera is the type locality for a [[resurgent dome]] caldera, the formation of which was first developed by C.S. Ross, R.L. Smith, and R.A. Bailey during field work at Valles in the 1960s.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last1=Smith|first1=Robert L.|chapter=Resurgent Cauldrons|date=1968|pages=613–662|publisher=Geological Society of America|language=en|doi=10.1130/mem116-p613|last2=Bailey|first2=Roy A.|title=Studies in Volcanology|volume=116|series=Geological Society of America Memoirs}}</ref>  This type locality and associated studies have been used to studied other resurgent domes around the world, including [[Yellowstone Caldera]]. After the initial caldera-forming eruption at Valles, the Redondo Peak resurgent dome was uplifted beginning around 1.2&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name=":3" /> Minor eruptions of moat [[Rhyolite|rhyolitic]] flows occurred from approximately 1.16&nbsp;million years ago at Cerro del Medio to 0.07&nbsp;million years ago at Banco Bonito, along a structural ring fracture zone.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gardner|first1=Jamie N.|last2=Goff|first2=Fraser|last3=Garcia|first3=Sammy|last4=Hagan|first4=Roland C.|date=1986|title=Stratigraphic relations and lithologic variations in the Jemez Volcanic Field, New Mexico|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=91|issue=B2|pages=1763|doi=10.1029/jb091ib02p01763|bibcode=1986JGR....91.1763G|issn=0148-0227}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Doell|first1=Richard R.|chapter=Paleomagnetism, Potassium-Argon Ages, and Geology of Rhyolites and Associated Rocks of the Valles Caldera, New Mexico|date=1968|pages=211–248|publisher=Geological Society of America|last2=Dalrymple|first2=G. Brent|last3=Smith|first3=Robert L.|last4=Bailey|first4=Roy A.|doi=10.1130/mem116-p211|title=Studies in Volcanology|volume=116|series=Geological Society of America Memoirs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Self|first1=S.|last2=Kircher|first2=D. E.|last3=Wolff|first3=J. A.|date=1988|title=The El Cajete Series, Valles Caldera, New Mexico|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=93|issue=B6|pages=6113|doi=10.1029/jb093ib06p06113|bibcode=1988JGR....93.6113S|issn=0148-0227}}</ref> The El Cajete [[Pumice]] and Battleship Rock [[Ignimbrite]] were emplaced in a single eruptive event 74,200 ± 1,100 years ago, followed by the eruption of the Banco Bonito [[obsidian]] flow during the youngest eruption of Valles Caldera, at 68,900 ± 1,000 years ago.<ref name=":3" /> The caldera and surrounding area continue to be shaped by ongoing volcanic activity. Seismic investigations show that a low-velocity zone lies beneath the caldera, suggesting the presence of partial melt within a remaining [[magma chamber]] at between 5 and 15&nbsp;km depth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Steck|first1=Lee K.|last2=Thurber|first2=Clifford H.|last3=Fehler|first3=Michael C.|last4=Lutter|first4=William J.|last5=Roberts|first5=Peter M.|last6=Baldridge|first6=W. Scott|last7=Stafford|first7=Darrik G.|last8=Sessions|first8=Robert|date=1998-10-10|title=Crust and upper mantlePwave velocity structure beneath Valles Caldera, New Mexico: Results from the Jemez teleseismic tomography experiment|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth|volume=103|issue=B10|pages=24301–24320|doi=10.1029/98jb00750|bibcode=1998JGR...10324301S|issn=0148-0227|doi-access=free}}</ref> An active geothermal system with [[hot springs]] and [[fumaroles]] exists today.<ref name="volcano" /> These calderas and associated volcanic structures lie within the [[Jemez Mountains|Jemez Volcanic Field]].  This volcanic field lies at the intersection of the [[Rio Grande Rift]], which runs north–south through New Mexico, and the [[Jemez Lineament]], which extends from southeastern [[Arizona]] northeast to western [[Oklahoma]]. The volcanic activity here is related to the tectonic movements of this intersection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Self|first1=Stephen|last2=Goff|first2=Fraser|last3=Gardner|first3=Jamie N.|last4=Wright|first4=John V.|last5=Kite|first5=William M.|date=1986|title=Explosive rhyolitic volcanism in the Jemez Mountains: Vent locations, caldera development and relation to regional structure|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=91|issue=B2|pages=1779|doi=10.1029/jb091ib02p01779|bibcode=1986JGR....91.1779S|issn=0148-0227}}</ref>

[[NASA]] used the caldera in October to November 1964 and again in September 1966 to geologically train the [[Apollo Astronauts]] in recognizing volcanic features, such as ash flow tuffs, pumice air falls, and rhyolite domes. Notable geologist instructors included Roy Bailey.<ref>'''Appendix E. Geology Field Exercises: Early Training''' Field Training Schedule for the first 3 Groups of Astronauts(29) ''Phase 1 of Geology Training - NASA'' https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/static/history/alsj//ap-geotrips.pdf</ref>

{{Wide image|South East Rim of the Valles Caldera in New Mexico.jpg|800px|Panoramic view of the Valles Caldera, from the south east rim; in the distance [[Redondo Peak]] (a [[resurgent dome]]) and the [[rhyolite]] [[lava dome]] of Cerro la Jara are visible on the far left.}}

===Climate===
According to the [[Köppen climate classification]], Valles Caldera has a [[subarctic climate]] (Dfc), with cold winters and mild summers. The caldera is subject to strong temperature inversions, causing very cold nights year round and high diurnal temperature variation.
{{Weather box
|location = Los Alamos 13 W, New Mexico, 1991–2020 normals: 8716ft (2657m)
|single line = Yes
|Jan record high F = 57
|Feb record high F = 56
|Mar record high F = 65
|Apr record high F = 72
|May record high F = 77
|Jun record high F = 88
|Jul record high F = 88
|Aug record high F = 84
|Sep record high F = 82
|Oct record high F = 74
|Nov record high F = 67
|Dec record high F = 59
|year record high F =

|Jan avg record high F = 48.8
|Feb avg record high F = 49.6
|Mar avg record high F = 58.8
|Apr avg record high F = 65.2
|May avg record high F = 71.9
|Jun avg record high F = 81.3
|Jul avg record high F = 80.9
|Aug avg record high F = 77.1
|Sep avg record high F = 74.2
|Oct avg record high F = 68.1
|Nov avg record high F = 61.2
|Dec avg record high F = 52.7
|year avg record high F = 82.3

|Jan high F = 36.2
|Feb high F = 38.2
|Mar high F = 44.5
|Apr high F = 52.4
|May high F = 62.0
|Jun high F = 71.7
|Jul high F = 73.7
|Aug high F = 71.1
|Sep high F = 65.7
|Oct high F = 56.5
|Nov high F = 45.5
|Dec high F = 36.4
|year high F =

|Jan mean F = 22.5
|Feb mean F = 25.2
|Mar mean F = 32.0
|Apr mean F = 38.9
|May mean F = 46.9
|Jun mean F = 55.6
|Jul mean F = 59.3
|Aug mean F = 57.2
|Sep mean F = 50.6
|Oct mean F = 41.4
|Nov mean F = 31.2
|Dec mean F = 22.7
|year mean F =

|Jan low F = 8.7
|Feb low F = 12.1
|Mar low F = 19.5
|Apr low F = 25.4
|May low F = 31.8
|Jun low F = 39.4
|Jul low F = 45.0
|Aug low F = 43.3
|Sep low F = 35.5
|Oct low F = 26.4
|Nov low F = 16.9
|Dec low F = 9.0
|year low F =

|Jan avg record low F=  -12.6
|Feb avg record low F=  -8.5
|Mar avg record low F=  0.9
|Apr avg record low F =  10.1
|May avg record low F =  19.2
|Jun avg record low F =  29.1
|Jul avg record low F =  37.2
|Aug avg record low F =  35.2
|Sep avg record low F =  25.4
|Oct avg record low F =  13.1
|Nov avg record low F =  -0.5
|Dec avg record low F =  -12.6
|year avg record low F = -18.4

|Jan record low F = −24
|Feb record low F = −26
|Mar record low F = −14
|Apr record low F = 2
|May record low F = 10
|Jun record low F = 22
|Jul record low F = 32
|Aug record low F = 30
|Sep record low F = 19
|Oct record low F = -2
|Nov record low F = -9
|Dec record low F = −26
|year record low F =

|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation inch = 1.76
|Feb precipitation inch = 1.98
|Mar precipitation inch = 2.35
|Apr precipitation inch = 1.76
|May precipitation inch = 1.39
|Jun precipitation inch = 1.15
|Jul precipitation inch = 3.68
|Aug precipitation inch = 3.66
|Sep precipitation inch = 2.18
|Oct precipitation inch = 2.17
|Nov precipitation inch = 1.63
|Dec precipitation inch = 1.77
|year precipitation inch =

|source 1 = NOAA<ref name = NOAA1>
{{cite web
|url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset=normals-monthly-1991-2020&startDate=0001-01-01&endDate=9996-12-31&stations=USW00003062&format=pdf
|title = Los Alamos 13 W, New Mexico 1991–2020 Monthly Normals
|access-date = November 11, 2023
}}
</ref>
|source 2 = XMACIS2 (records & monthly max/mins)<ref name = XMACIS>
{{cite web
|url = https://xmacis.rcc-acis.org/
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|title = xmACIS
|access-date = November 11, 2023
}}
</ref>
}}

{{Weather box
|location = Wolfcanyon, New Mexico, 1991–2020 normals, 1912–2020 extremes: 8220ft (2505m)
|single line = Yes

|Jan record high F = 63
|Feb record high F = 69
|Mar record high F = 75
|Apr record high F = 78
|May record high F = 86
|Jun record high F = 95
|Jul record high F = 99
|Aug record high F = 96
|Sep record high F = 91
|Oct record high F = 80
|Nov record high F = 74
|Dec record high F = 68
|year record high F =

|Jan avg record high F = 50.7
|Feb avg record high F = 50.8
|Mar avg record high F = 59.2
|Apr avg record high F = 66.4
|May avg record high F = 74.4
|Jun avg record high F = 82.9
|Jul avg record high F = 83.7
|Aug avg record high F = 80.2
|Sep avg record high F = 77.1
|Oct avg record high F = 69.7
|Nov avg record high F = 59.7
|Dec avg record high F = 51.2
|year avg record high F = 85.0

|Jan high F = 38.2
|Feb high F = 40.1
|Mar high F = 47.8
|Apr high F = 55.8
|May high F = 64.7
|Jun high F = 75.3
|Jul high F = 77.0
|Aug high F = 74.7
|Sep high F = 69.2
|Oct high F = 58.8
|Nov high F = 46.6
|Dec high F = 38.0
|year high F =

|Jan mean F = 23.7
|Feb mean F = 26.4
|Mar mean F = 33.3
|Apr mean F = 39.9
|May mean F = 47.3
|Jun mean F = 56.1
|Jul mean F = 60.4
|Aug mean F = 58.8
|Sep mean F = 52.6
|Oct mean F = 42.8
|Nov mean F = 32.1
|Dec mean F = 24.1
|year mean F =

|Jan low F = 9.3
|Feb low F = 12.7
|Mar low F = 18.8
|Apr low F = 24.0
|May low F = 29.9
|Jun low F = 36.9
|Jul low F = 43.7
|Aug low F = 42.9
|Sep low F = 36.1
|Oct low F = 26.7
|Nov low F = 17.6
|Dec low F = 10.1
|year low F =

|Jan avg record low F= -9.2
|Feb avg record low F= -6.0
|Mar avg record low F=  0.3
|Apr avg record low F = 10.8
|May avg record low F = 19.9
|Jun avg record low F = 27.4
|Jul avg record low F = 36.0
|Aug avg record low F = 35.3
|Sep avg record low F = 24.8
|Oct avg record low F = 13.7
|Nov avg record low F = 0.2
|Dec avg record low F = -9.3
|year avg record low F = -13.6

|Jan record low F = −38
|Feb record low F = −41
|Mar record low F = −26
|Apr record low F = -12
|May record low F = 5
|Jun record low F = 14
|Jul record low F = 18
|Aug record low F = 22
|Sep record low F = 11
|Oct record low F = -2
|Nov record low F = -29
|Dec record low F = −34
|year record low F =

|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation inch = 1.89
|Feb precipitation inch = 1.67
|Mar precipitation inch = 1.66
|Apr precipitation inch = 1.33
|May precipitation inch = 1.15
|Jun precipitation inch = 0.90
|Jul precipitation inch = 3.35
|Aug precipitation inch = 3.35
|Sep precipitation inch = 2.12
|Oct precipitation inch = 1.75
|Nov precipitation inch = 1.51
|Dec precipitation inch = 1.90
|year precipitation inch =

|Jan snow inch = 22.8
|Feb snow inch = 20.1
|Mar snow inch = 16.8
|Apr snow inch = 11.9
|May snow inch = 2.2
|Jun snow inch = 0.1
|Jul snow inch = 0.0
|Aug snow inch = 0.0
|Sep snow inch = 0.2
|Oct snow inch = 3.5
|Nov snow inch = 11.4
|Dec snow inch = 22.3
|year snow inch =

|source 1 = NOAA<ref name = NOAA>
{{cite web
|url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset=normals-monthly-1991-2020&startDate=0001-01-01&endDate=9996-12-31&stations=USC00299820&format=pdf
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|title =  Wolf Canyon, New Mexico 1991–2020 Monthly Normals
|access-date = September 24, 2023
}}
</ref>
|source 2 = XMACIS2 (records & monthly max/mins)<ref name = XMACIS>
{{cite web
|url = https://xmacis.rcc-acis.org/
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|title = xmACIS
|access-date = November 11, 2023
}}
</ref>
}}

{{Weather box
|collapsed=y
|location = Hidden Valley (Valles Caldera), New Mexico (2011–2023): {{cvt|8470|ft|m}}
|single line = Y
| Jan high F = 37.9
| Feb high F = 40.4
| Mar high F = 48.0
| Apr high F = 54.5
| May high F = 62.5
| Jun high F = 74.9
| Jul high F = 75.5
| Aug high F = 73.6
| Sep high F = 69.1
| Oct high F = 58.2
| Nov high F = 48.5
| Dec high F = 38.2
|year high F =
|Jan mean F = 16.4
|Feb mean F = 22.4
|Mar mean F = 31.8
|Apr mean F = 38.9
|May mean F = 45.7
|Jun mean F = 55.7
|Jul mean F = 58.3
|Aug mean F = 55.6
|Sep mean F = 49.5
|Oct mean F = 37.7
|Nov mean F = 27.4
|Dec mean F = 18.3
|year mean F =
| Jan low F = -3.5
| Feb low F = 2.3
| Mar low F = 13.6
| Apr low F = 18.9
| May low F = 22.7
| Jun low F = 29.6
| Jul low F = 39.2
| Aug low F = 37.0
| Sep low F = 29.5
| Oct low F = 17.3
| Nov low F = 8.4
| Dec low F = -1.1
|year low F =
|Jan record high F = 59.1
|Feb record high F = 57.9
|Mar record high F = 66.6
|Apr record high F = 72.9
|May record high F = 76.0
|Jun record high F = 90.0
|Jul record high F = 85.0
|Aug record high F = 82.5
|Sep record high F = 83.2
|Oct record high F = 74.8
|Nov record high F = 68.0
|Dec record high F = 64.2
|year record high F =
|Jan record low F = -39.6
|Feb record low F = -39.0
|Mar record low F = -23.1
|Apr record low F = -2.3
|May record low F = -1.1
|Jun record low F = 8.4
|Jul record low F = 20.7
|Aug record low F = 20.9
|Sep record low F = 7.7
|Oct record low F = -14.7
|Nov record low F = -19.9
|Dec record low F = -39.6
|year record low F =
|precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation inch = 1.13
| Feb precipitation inch = 0.71
| Mar precipitation inch = 2.10
| Apr precipitation inch = 0.63
| May precipitation inch = 0.91
| Jun precipitation inch = 1.07
| Jul precipitation inch = 4.01
| Aug precipitation inch = 2.61
| Sep precipitation inch = 2.50
| Oct precipitation inch = 2.08
| Nov precipitation inch = 1.16
| Dec precipitation inch = 0.91
|year precipitation inch =
| unit precipitation days = 0.01 in
| Jan precipitation days = 8.9
| Feb precipitation days = 7.7
| Mar precipitation days = 9.9
| Apr precipitation days = 7.7
| May precipitation days = 8.1
| Jun precipitation days = 5.8
| Jul precipitation days = 16.1
| Aug precipitation days = 14.7
| Sep precipitation days = 10.6
| Oct precipitation days = 9.1
| Nov precipitation days = 9.1
| Dec precipitation days = 7.7
| year precipitation days =
|source 1 = WRCC<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/rawMAIN.pl?nvvhvy
| title = Hidden Valley (VC) New Mexico
| publisher = [[Western Regional Climate Center]]
| accessdate = January 18, 2023
}}</ref>
}}