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Vitreous enamel
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=== Japan === [[File:Khalili Collection Japanese Meiji Art E83.jpg|thumb|right|Imperial vases by [[Ando Jubei]], with the [[Imperial Seal of Japan|chrysanthemum crests of the Imperial family]], using {{lang|ja-latn|moriage}} to slightly raise the design; [[Khalili Collection of Japanese Art]]]] Japanese artists did not make three-dimensional enamelled objects until the 1830s but, once the technique took hold based on analysis of Chinese objects, it developed very rapidly, reaching a peak in the [[Meiji (era)|Meiji]] and [[Taishō]] eras (late 19th/early 20th century).<ref name="enamelinjapan">{{cite book |last1=Impey |first1=Oliver |last2=Fairley |first2=Malcolm |editor1-last=Williams |editor1-first=Haydn |title=Enamels of the world, 1700-2000: the Khalili collections |date=2009 |publisher=Khalili Family Trust |location=London |isbn=978-1-874780-17-5 |pages=149–156 |chapter=Enamel in Japan}}</ref> Enamel had been used as decoration for metalwork since about 1600,<ref name="earle">{{Cite book|last=Earle|first=Joe|title=Splendors of Meiji : treasures of imperial Japan : masterpieces from the Khalili Collection|publisher=Broughton International Inc|year=1999|isbn=1874780137|location=St. Petersburg, Fla.|pages=252–254|oclc=42476594}}</ref><ref name="enamelinjapan" /> and Japanese cloisonné was already exported to Europe before the start of the Meiji era in 1868.<ref name="enamelinjapan" /> Cloisonné is known in Japan as {{lang|ja-latn|shippo}}, literally "seven treasures".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Harada|first=Jiro|date=1911|title=Japanese Art & Artists of To-day VI. Cloisonné Enamels|url=https://archive.org/details/studiointernatio53lond/page/270/mode/2up|journal=The Studio|volume=53|page=271|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> This refers to richly coloured substances mentioned in Buddhist texts.<ref name="polished">{{Cite web|date=5 November 2017|title=Polished to Perfection|url=https://asianartnewspaper.com/polished-to-perfection/|access-date=16 July 2020|website=Asian Art Newspaper|issn=1475-1372}}</ref> The term was initially used for colourful objects imported from China. According to legend, in the 1830s [[Kaji Tsunekichi]] broke open a Chinese enamel object to examine it, then trained many artists, starting off Japan's own enamel industry.<ref name="polished" /><ref name="earle" /> Early Japanese enamels were cloudy and opaque, with relatively clumsy shapes. This changed rapidly from 1870 onwards.<ref name="enamelinjapan" /> The Nagoya cloisonné company ({{lang|ja-latn|Nagoya shippo kaisha}} existed from 1871 to 1884, to sell the output of many small workshops and help them improve their work.<ref name="enamelinjapan" /> In 1874, the government created the {{lang|ja-latn|Kiriu kosho kaisha}} company to sponsor the creation of a wide range of decorative arts at international exhibitions. This was part of a programme to promote Japan as a modern, industrial nation.<ref name="enamelinjapan" /> [[Gottfried Wagener]] was a German scientist brought in by the government to advise Japanese industry and improve production processes. Along with [[Namikawa Yasuyuki]] he developed a transparent black enamel which was used for backgrounds. Translucent enamels in various other colours followed during this period.<ref name="enamelinjapan" /> Along with [[Tsukamoto Kaisuke]], Wagener transformed the firing processes used by Japanese workshops, improving the quality of finishes and extending the variety of colours.<ref name="enamelinjapan" /> [[Kawade Shibatarō]] introduced a variety of techniques, including {{lang|ja-latn|nagare-gusuri}} (drip-glaze) which produces a rainbow-coloured glaze and {{lang|ja-latn|uchidashi}} ([[Repoussé and chasing|repoussé]]) technique, in which the metal foundation is hammered outwards to create a [[relief]] effect.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kawade Shibatarō {{!}} Imperial Presentation Vase with Maple Branches and Imperial Chrysanthemum Crest (one of a pair)|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/60501|access-date=16 July 2020|website=www.metmuseum.org|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Together with [[Hattori Tadasaburō]] he developed the {{lang|ja-latn|moriage}} ("piling up") technique which places layers of enamel upon each other to create a three-dimensional effect.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Irvine|first=Gregory|title=Japonisme and the rise of the modern art movement : the arts of the Meiji period : the Khalili collection|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=2013|isbn=978-0-500-23913-1|location=New York|pages=181|oclc=853452453}}</ref> [[Namikawa Sōsuke]] developed a pictorial style that imitated paintings. He is known for {{lang|ja-latn|shosen}} (minimised wires) and {{lang|ja-latn|musen}} (wireless cloisonné): techniques developed with Wagener in which the wire {{lang|fr|cloisons}} are minimised or burned away completely with acid.<ref name="dma">{{Cite web|last=Leonard|first=Loryn|date=2012-06-26|title=How It's Made: Japanese Cloisonné|url=https://blog.dma.org/2012/06/26/how-its-made-japanese-cloisonne/|access-date=2020-10-16|website=Dallas Museum of Art Uncrated|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="earle" /> This contrasts with the Chinese style which used thick metal {{lang|fr|cloisons}}.<ref name="enamelinjapan" /> [[Ando Jubei]] introduced the {{lang|ja-latn|shōtai-jippō}} ({{lang|fr|[[plique-à-jour]]}}) technique which burns away the metal substrate to leave translucent enamel, producing an effect resembling [[stained glass]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ashmolean − Eastern Art Online, Yousef Jameel Centre for Islamic and Asian Art|url=http://jameelcentre.ashmolean.org/collection/7/10227/10247/all/per_page/25/offset/25/sort_by/date/object/12153|access-date=16 July 2020|website=jameelcentre.ashmolean.org|publisher=Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford|language=en}}</ref> The [[Ando Cloisonné Company]] which he co-founded is one of the few makers from this era still active.<ref name="enamelinjapan" /> Distinctively Japanese designs, in which flowers, birds and insects were used as themes, became popular. Designs also increasingly used areas of blank space.<ref name="earle" /> With the greater subtlety these techniques allowed, Japanese enamels were regarded as unequalled in the world<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1893|title=Japanese Art Enamels|journal=The Decorator and Furnisher|volume=21|issue=5|page=170|jstor=25582341|issn=2150-6256|quote=We doubt if any form of the enameller's art can equal the work executed in Japan, which is distinguished by great freedom of design, and the most exquisite gradations of color.}}</ref> and won many awards at national and international exhibitions.<ref name="dma" /><ref>Toyoro Hida, Gregory Irvine, Kana Ooki, Tomoko Hana and Yukari Muro. ''Namikawa Yasuyuki and Japanese Cloisonné The Allure of Meiji Cloisonné: The Aesthetic of Translucent Black'', pp.182-188, [[Mainichi Shimbun|The Mainichi Newspapers Co, Ltd]], 2017</ref>
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