Editing Wu wei (section)

==In political theory==
[[File:EN-HAN260BCE.jpg|thumbnail|]]
Unable to find his philosopher-king, Confucius placed his hope in virtuous ministers.{{sfnp|Creel|1970|p=59}} Apart from the Confucian ruler's "divine essence" (''ling'') "ensuring the fecundity of his people" and fertility of the soil, Creel notes that he was also assisted by "five servants", who "performed the active functions of government".<ref name="ReferenceB">{{harvp|Creel|1982|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5p6EBnx4_W0C&pg=PA59 59,78]}}; {{harvp|Slingerland|2007|p=9}}</ref> [[Xun Kuang]]'s ''[[Xunzi (book)|Xunzi]]'', a Confucian adaptation to [[Qin (state)|Qin]] Legalism, defines the ruler in much the same sense, saying that the ruler "need only correct his person" because the "abilities of the ruler appear in his appointment of men to office": namely, appraising virtue and causing others to perform.

Important information lay in the recovery of the fragments of administrator [[Shen Buhai]]. Shen portrays [[Emperor Yao|Yao]] as using Fa (administrative method) in the selection and evaluation of men.{{sfnp|Creel|1970|p=64}} Though not a conclusive argument against proto-Daoist influence, Shen's Daoist terms do not show evidence of Daoist usage (Confucianism also uses terms like 'Dao', meaning the 'Way' of government), lacking any metaphysical connotation.{{sfnp|Creel|1970|p=62–63}} The later Legalist book, the ''Han Feizi'' has a commentary on the ''Daodejing'', but references Shen Buhai rather than Laozi for this usage.{{sfnp|Creel|1970|p=69}}

Shen is credited with the dictum "The Sage ruler relies on method and does not rely on wisdom; he relies on technique, not on persuasions",{{sfnp|Goldin|2005|p=93}} and used the term ''wu wei'' to mean that the ruler, though vigilant, should not interfere with the duties of his ministers, saying "One who has the right way of government does not perform the functions of the five (aka various) officials, and yet is the master of the government".{{sfnmp|Creel|1970|1pp=48, 62–63|Barlow|1985|2p=92}}

Since the bulk of both the ''Daodejing'' and ''Zhuangzi'' appear to have been composed at a later point, Creel argued that it may therefore be assumed that Shen influenced them,<ref name="Creel 48, 62–63">{{harvp|Creel|1982|pp=48, 62–63}}</ref>{{sfnp|Barlow|1985|p=92}} much of both appearing to be counter-arguments against Legalist controls.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{harvp|Creel|1982|p=69}}</ref> The "Way of Heaven" chapter of the ''Zhuangzi'' seems to follow Shen Buhai down to the detail, saying "Superiors must be without action in-order to control the world; inferiors must be active in-order to be employed in the world's business..." and to paraphrase, that foundation and principle are the responsibility of the superior, superstructure and details that of the minister, but then goes on to attack Shen's administrative details as non-essential.{{sfnp|Creel|1970|p=71}}

Elsewhere, the ''Zhuangzi'' references another Legalist, [[Shen Dao]], as impartial and lacking selfishness, his "great way embracing all things".<ref>Antonio S. Cua 2003 p.362, Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy</ref>

=== Non-action by the ruler ===
[[File:Zhaoming Mirror, Western Han dynasty, from M16 at the construction sit of Enterprise Bureau of Military Region, Meihua Cun, Guangzhou - Hong Kong Museum of History - DSC00797.JPG|thumbnail|Zhaoming Mirror frame, Western Han dynasty]]
Shen Buhai argued that if the government were organized and supervised relying on proper method (Fa), the ruler needs to do little – and must do little.<ref>{{harvp|Creel|1970|pp=69,99}}, {{harvp|Creel|1974|p=66}}</ref> Apparently paraphrasing the [[Analects]], Shen did not consider the relationship between ruler and minister antagonistic necessarily,<ref>R. P. Peerenboom 1993 p.241. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ctWt6bvFaNAC&pg=PA241 Law and Morality in Ancient China.]</ref> but still believed that the ruler's most able ministers were his greatest danger,<ref name="Creel p.35">{{harvp|Creel|1974|p=35}}</ref> and was convinced that it was impossible to make them loyal without techniques.<ref>{{harvp|Go|2002|p=143}}</ref> Sinologist [[Herrlee G. Creel]] explains: "The ruler's subjects are so numerous, and so on alert to discover his weaknesses and get the better of him, that it is hopeless for him alone as one man to try to learn their characteristics and control them by his knowledge... the ruler must refrain from taking the initiative, and from making himself conspicuous – and therefore vulnerable – by taking any overt action."{{sfnp|Creel|1970|p=67}}

Emphasizing the use of administrative methods (''Fa'') in secrecy, Shen Buhai portrays the ruler as putting up a front to hide his weaknesses and dependence on his advisers.<ref>Karyn Lai 2017. p.171. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3M1WDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA171 An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy.]</ref> Shen therefore advises the ruler to keep his own counsel, hide his motivations, and conceal his tracks in inaction, availing himself of an appearance of stupidity and insufficiency.<ref name="auto">{{harvp|Creel|1982|p=67}}</ref><ref name="Creel p.35"/> Shen says:

{{blockquote
| text=If the ruler's intelligence is displayed, men will prepare against it; if his lack of intelligence is displayed, they will delude him. If his wisdom is displayed, men will gloss over (their faults); if his lack of wisdom is displayed, they will hide from him. If his lack of desires is displayed, men will spy out his true desires; if his desires are displayed, they will tempt him. Therefore (the intelligent ruler) says 'I cannot know them; it is only by means of non-action that I control them.'<ref>{{harvp|Creel|1970|p=66}}; {{harvp|Huang|2016|p=185}}</ref>}}

Acting through ''Fa'', the ruler conceals his intentions, likes and dislikes, skills and opinions. Not acting himself, he can avoid being manipulated.{{sfnp|Barlow|1985|p=92}} The ruler plays no active role in governmental functions. He should not use his talent even if he has it. Not using his own skills, he is better able to secure the services of capable functionaries. Creel argues that not getting involved in details allowed Shen's ruler to "truly rule", because it leaves him free to supervise the government without interfering, maintaining his perspective.{{sfnmp|1a1=Creel|1y=1970|1p=65–66|2a1=Go|2y=2002|2p=198}} Seeing and hearing independently, the ruler is able to make decisions independently, and is, Shen says, able to rule the world thereby.{{sfnp|Creel|1974|p=26}}

{{blockquote
| text=The ruler is like a mirror, reflecting light, doing nothing, and yet, beauty and ugliness present themselves; (or like) a scale establishing equilibrium, doing nothing, and yet causing lightness and heaviness to discover themselves. (Administrative) method (Fa) is complete acquiescence. (Merging his) personal (concerns) with the public (weal), he does not act. He does not act, and yet the world itself is complete.
| source=Shen Buhai<ref name="auto2">{{harvp|Creel|1982|p=64}}</ref>
}}

This ''wu wei'' might be said to end up the political theory of the [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|"Legalists"]], if not becoming their general term for political strategy, playing a "crucial role in the promotion of the autocratic tradition of the Chinese polity". The (qualified) non-action of the ruler ensures his power and the stability of the polity.<ref name="go 198">{{harvp|Go|2002|p=198}}</ref>

=== Non-action in statecraft ===
[[File:Wang Juzheng's Spinning Wheel, Close Up 2.jpg|thumb|"The Way of Listening is to be giddy as though soused. Be dumber and dumber. Let others deploy themselves, and accordingly I shall know them."
{{paragraph break}}
Right and wrong whirl around him like spokes on a wheel, but the sovereign does not complot. Emptiness, stillness, non-action—these are the characteristics of the Way. By checking and comparing how it accords with reality, &#91;one ascertains&#93; the "performance" of an enterprise.<ref>{{harvp|Goldin|2013| p=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chen |first=Qiyou {{lang|zh|陳奇猷}} |year=2000 |trans-title=Han Feizi, with new collations and commentary |script-title=zh:韓非子新校注 |location=Shanghai |publisher=Guji |pages=2.8.156}}</ref>
{{paragraph break}}
Han Fei
{{paragraph break}}
Detail of ''The Spinning Wheel'', by [[History of Chinese art|Chinese artist]] Wang Juzheng, [[Northern Song dynasty]] (960–1279)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deng |first1=Yingke |first2=Pingxing |last2=Wang |year=2005 |title=Ancient Chinese Inventions |publisher={{lang|zh|五洲传播出版社}} (World communication publishing) |isbn=7-5085-0837-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientchinesein0000deng/page/48 48] |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientchinesein0000deng/page/48 }}</ref>]]

Shen Buhai insisted that the ruler must be fully informed of the state of his realm, but couldn't afford to get caught up in details and in an ideal situation need listen to no one. Listening to his courtiers might interfere with promotions, and he does not, as Sinologist [[Herrlee G. Creel]] says, have the time to do so. The way to see and hear independently is the grouping together of particulars into categories using mechanical or operational method (Fa). On the contrary the ruler's eyes and ears will make him "deaf and blind" (unable to obtain accurate information). Seeing and hearing independently, the ruler is able to make decisions independently, and is, Shen says, able to rule the world thereby.{{sfnmp|1a1=Creel|1y=1970|1p=81|2a1=Creel|2y=1974|2p=33,68–69|3a1=Graham|3y=1989|3p=283}}

Despite this, Shen's method of appointment, ''Ming-shih'', advises a particular method for listening to petitioners in the final analyses, which would be articulated as Xing-Ming by [[Han Fei]]. In the Han dynasty secretaries of government who had charge of the records of decisions in criminal matters were called Xing-Ming, which [[Sima Qian]] (145 or 135 – 86 BC) and [[Liu Xiang (scholar)|Liu Xiang]] (77–6 BC) attributed to the doctrine of Shen Buhai (400 – {{circa|337 BC}}). Liu Xiang goes as far as to define Shen Buhai's doctrine as Xing-Ming.{{sfnmp|Creel|1970|1pp=72, 80, 103–104|Creel|1959|2pp=199–200|Makeham|1990|3pp=91–92}} Rather than having to look for "good" men, ming-shih or xing-ming can seek the right man for a particular post by comparing his reputation with real conduct (xing "form" or shih "reality"), though doing so implies a total organizational knowledge of the regime.{{sfnmp|1a1=Creel|1y=1974|1p=57|2a1=Creel|2y=1970|2p=83|3a1=Creel|3y=1959|3p=203}}

More simply though, one can allow ministers to "name" themselves through accounts of specific cost and time frame, leaving their definition to competing ministers. Claims or utterances "bind the speaker to the realization a job" (Makeham). This was the doctrine, with subtle differences, favoured by Han Fei. Favoring exactness, it combats the tendency to promise too much.<ref>{{harvp|Makeham|1990|p=91}}; Mark Edward Lewis, 1999 p.&nbsp;33, Writing and Authority in Early China; {{harvp|Goldin|2013| p=9}}</ref> The correct articulation of {{zhi|c=名|p=míng|l=name', 'speech', 'title}} is considered crucial to the realization of projects.{{sfnmp|Makeham|1990|1p=91|Makeham|1994|2p=67}}

Shen resolved hair-splitting litigation through ''wu wei'', or not getting involved, making an official's words his own responsibility.{{sfnp|Makeham|1990|p=91}} Shen Buhai says, "The ruler controls the policy, the ministers manage affairs. To speak ten times and ten times be right, to act a hundred times and a hundred times succeed – this is the business of one who serves another as minister; it is not the way to rule."{{sfnp|Creel|1970|p=65}} The correlation between ''wu wei'' and ming-shih likely informed the Taoist conception of the formless Tao that "gives rise to the ten thousand things."<ref>Julia Ching, R. W. L. Guisso. 1991. pp.&nbsp;75,119. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ynfrlFZcUG8C&pg=PA75 Sages and Filial Sons. ]</ref>

====Yin (passive mindfulness)====
Adherence to the use of technique in governing requires the ruler not engage in any interference or subjective consideration.{{sfnp|Makeham|1990|pp=90–91}} Sinologist [[John Makeham]] explains: "assessing words and deeds requires the ruler's dispassionate attention; (yin is) the skill or technique of making one's mind a [[tabula rasa]], non-committaly taking note of all the details of a man's claims and then objectively comparing his achievements of the original claims."{{sfnp|Makeham|1990|pp=90–91}}

A commentary to the Shiji cites a now-lost book as quoting Shen Buhai saying: "By employing (yin), 'passive mindfulness', in overseeing and keeping account of his vassals, accountability is deeply engraved." The ''Guanzi'' similarly says: "Yin is the way of non-action. Yin is neither to add to nor to detract from anything. To give something a name strictly on the basis of its form – this is the Method of yin."{{sfnmp|Makeham|1990|1pp=90–91|Makeham|1994|2p=69}} Yin also aimed at concealing the ruler's intentions, likes and opinions.{{sfnp|Makeham|1990|pp=90–91}}

=== Shen Dao ===
Shen Dao espouses an impersonal administration in much the same sense as Shen Buhai, and argued for ''wu wei'', or the non action of the ruler, along the same lines, saying
{{blockquote| text=The Dao of ruler and ministers is that the ministers labour themselves with tasks while the prince has no task; the prince is relaxed and happy while the ministers bear responsibility for tasks. The ministers use all their intelligence and strength to perform his job satisfactorily, in which the ruler takes no part, but merely waits for the job to be finished. As a result, every task is taken care of. The correct way of government is thus.<ref>{{harvp|Chen |Sung|2015|page=251}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Emerson |first=John |title=Shen Dao: Text and Translation |oclc=911414271 |year=2013 |publisher= Éditions Le Real}}</ref>}}

Shen Dao eschews appointment by interview in favour of a mechanical distribution apportioning every person according to their achievement.<ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=Knoblock  |year=1988 |publisher=Stanford University Press |page=172 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNqmAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA172 |title=Xunzi: Books 7–16. |isbn=9780804717717}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Masayuki Sato |year=2003 |pages=122, 126, 133–136 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FXJuJl5XTqAC&pg=PA134 |title=The Confucian Quest for Order: The Origin and Formation of the Political Thought of Xun Zi |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004129658 |ref={{harvid|Sato|2003}}}}</ref> Linking administrative methods or standards to the notion of impartial objectivity associated with universal interest, and reframing the language of the old ritual order to fit a universal, imperial and highly bureaucratized state,<ref name="Erica Brindley p.6, 8">{{cite journal |first=Erica |last=Brindley |title=The Polarization of the Concepts Si (Private Interest) and Gong (Public Interest) in Early Chinese Thought |journal=Asia Major |volume=26 |issue=2 |year=2013  |pages=6, 8, 12–13, 16, 19, 21–22, 24, 27 |jstor=43829251}}</ref> Shen cautions the ruler against relying on his own personal judgment,<ref name="Shen Dao's Own Voice 2011. p.202">{{cite journal |title=Shen Dao's Own Voice in the Shenzi Fragments |year=2011 |page=202 |journal=Dao |volume=10 |doi=10.1007/s11712-011-9212-7 |last1=Yang |first1=Soon-ja |issue=2 }}</ref> contrasting personal opinions with the merit of the objective standard as preventing personal judgements or opinions from being exercised. Personal opinions destroy standards, and Shen Dao's ruler therefore "does not show favoritism toward a single person".<ref name="Erica Brindley p.6, 8"/>

{{blockquote | When an enlightened ruler establishes &#91;gong&#93; ("duke" or "public interest"), [private&#93; desires do not oppose the correct timing &#91;of things&#93;, favoritism does not violate the law, nobility does not trump the rules, salary does not exceed &#91;that which is due&#93; one's position, a &#91;single&#93; officer does not occupy multiple offices, and a &#91;single&#93; craftsman does not take up multiple lines of work... &#91;Such a ruler&#93; neither overworked his heart-mind with knowledge nor exhausted himself with self-interest (si), but, rather, depended on laws and methods for settling matters of order and disorder, rewards and punishments for deciding on matters of right and wrong, and weights and balances for resolving issues of heavy or light...<ref name="Erica Brindley p.6, 8"/>

The reason why those who apportion horses use ce-lots, and those who apportion fields use gou-lots, is not that they take ce and gou-lots to be superior to human wisdom, but that one may eliminate private interest and stop resentment by these means. Thus it is said: 'When the great lord relies on fa and does not act personally, affairs are judged in accordance with (objective) method (fa).' The benefit of fa is that each person meets his reward or punishment according to his due, and there are no further expectations of the lord. Thus resentment does not arise and superiors and inferiors are in harmony.

If the lord of men abandons method (Fa) and governs with his own person, then penalties and rewards, seizures and grants, will all emerge from the lord's mind. If this is the case, then those who receive rewards, even if these are commensurate, will ceaselessly expect more; those who receive punishment, even if these are commensurate, will endlessly expect more lenient treatment... people will be rewarded differently for the same merit and punished differently for the same fault. Resentment arises from this."<ref>{{harvp|Goldin|2011}} {{pages needed |date=March 2025}}; {{harvp|Sato|2003|p=129}}; {{harvp|Yang|2013|p=50}}</ref>}}

===Han Fei===
Devoting the entirety of Chapter 14, "How to Love the Ministers", to "persuading the ruler to be ruthless to his ministers", Han Fei's enlightened ruler strikes terror into his ministers by doing nothing (wu wei). The qualities of a ruler, his "mental power, moral excellence and physical prowess" are irrelevant. He discards his private reason and morality, and shows no personal feelings. What is important is his method of government. Fa (administrative standards) require no perfection on the part of the ruler.<ref name="Ellen Marie Chen p.2,4">{{cite journal |first=Ellen Marie |last=Chen |date=1975 |volume=3 |number=1 |pages=2, 4, 6–9 |title=The Dialectic of Chih (Reason) and Tao (Nature) in ''The Han Fei-Tzu'' |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy}}</ref>

If the Han Fei's use of ''wu wei'' was derivative of proto-Daoist [[Animism|folk religion]], its Dao nonetheless emphasizes autocracy ("Tao does not identify with anything but it non-self, the ruler does not identify with the ministers"). Accepting that Han Fei applies ''wu wei'' specifically to statecraft, professors Xing Lu argues that Han Fei still considered ''wu wei'' is still a virtue. As Han Fei says, "by virtue (De) of resting empty and reposed, he waits for the course of nature to force or unfold itself."<ref>{{cite book |author=Xing Lu {{lang|zh|呂行}} |date=1998 |title=Rhetoric in Ancient China, Fifth to Third Century, B.C.E.. |chapter=Conceptualization of Shui and Ming Bian by Han Feizi |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=72QURrAppzkC&pg=PA264 |page=264 |isbn=9781570032165 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press}}</ref>{{sfnp|Ames|1994|p=50}}

{{blockquote
|text=Dao is the beginning of the myriad things, the standard of right and wrong. That being so, the intelligent ruler, by holding to the beginning, knows the source of everything, and, by keeping to the standard, knows the origin of good and evil. Therefore, by virtue of resting empty and reposed, he waits for the course of nature to enforce itself so that all names will be defined of themselves and all affairs will be settled of themselves. Empty, he knows the essence of fullness: reposed, he becomes the corrector of motion. Who utters a word creates himself a name; who has an affair creates himself a form. Compare forms and names and see if they are identical. Then the ruler will find nothing to worry about as everything is reduced to its reality...<p>

Dao exists in invisibility; its function, in unintelligibility. Be empty and reposed and have nothing to do-Then from the dark see defects in the light. See but never be seen. Hear but never be heard. Know but never be known. If you hear any word uttered, do not change it nor move it but compare it with the deed and see if word and deed coincide with each other. Place every official with a censor. Do not let them speak to each other. Then everything will be exerted to the utmost. Cover tracks and conceal sources. Then the ministers cannot trace origins. Leave your wisdom and cease your ability. Then your subordinates cannot guess at your limitations.<ref> {{harvp|Han Fei|Watson|pp=16, 18}}; {{harvp|Csikszentmihalyi|1997}}{{pages needed |date=March 2025}}; {{harvp|Huang|2016|pages=186–187}}; {{harvp|Lim Xiao Wei |2005  |page=18}}; {{cite book |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/hanfei.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.5&toc.depth=1&toc.id=0&doc.lang=bilingual |title=The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzŭ with Collected Commentaries |chapter=Chapter V. The Tao of the Sovereign |access-date=2019-03-21}}</ref></p>}}

The ''Han Feizi''{{'}}s commentary on the Daodejing asserts that perspectiveless knowledge – an absolute point of view – is possible.<ref>Chad Hansen, 1992 p.&nbsp;371 [https://books.google.com/books?id=nzHmobC0ThsC&pg=PA371 A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought]</ref>

=== Han dynasty ===
Legalism dominated the intellectual life of the Qin and early Han together with Daoism. Early Han dynasty Emperors like [[Emperor Jing of Han|Emperor Jing]] (r. 157–141 BCE) would be steeped in a Daoistic laissez-faire.<ref>Hansen, Chad, "Daoism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entries/daoism/</ref> But Shen Buhai's book would be widely studied even from the beginning of the Han era.<ref name="Creel p.35"/> [[Jia Yi]]'s (200–168 AD) Hsin-shu, undoubtedly influenced by the "Legalists", describes Shen Buhai's techniques as methods of applying the Dao, or virtue, bringing together Confucian and Daoist discourses under the imagery of the Zhuangzi.<ref>{{harvp|Csikszentmihalyi|1997|pp=49, 65}}</ref> Many later texts, for instance in [[Huang-Lao]], use similar images to describe the quiescent attitude of the ruler.<ref>{{harvp|Csikszentmihalyi|1997|p=55}}
</ref>
The [[Huang-Lao]] text ''[[Huainanzi]]'' (Western Han dynasty 206 B.C. – 9 A.D.), although oriented toward state interest, would go on to include naturalist arguments in favour of rule by worthies on the basis that one needs their competence for such things as diplomacy, and defines ''wu wei'' as follows:

{{blockquote|"What is meant ... by wu-wei is that no personal prejudice &#91;private or public will,&#93; interferes with the universal Tao &#91;the laws of things&#93;, and that no desires and obsessions lead the true course ... astray. Reason must guide action in order that power may be exercised according to the intrinsic properties and natural trends of things."<ref>John M. Hobson, The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation (Cambridge 2004), p. 190.</ref>}}

The Huang–Lao text [[Huangdi Sijing|Jing fa]] says:
{{blockquote|The right way to understand all these (things) is to remain in a state of &#91;vacuity,&#93; formlessness and non-being. Only if one remains in such a state, may he thereby know that (all things) necessarily possess their forms and names as soon as they come into existence, even though they are as small as autumn down. As soon as forms and names are established, the distinction between black and white becomes manifest... there will be no way to escape from them without a trace or to hide them from regulation... &#91;all things&#93; will correct themselves.<ref>{{harvp|Chen |Sung|2015|page= 253}}</ref>}}