Editing Yoruba language (section)

== Phonology ==
The syllable structure of Yoruba is (C)V(N). Syllabic nasals are also possible. Every syllable bears one of the three tones: high {{angle bracket|◌́}}, mid {{angle bracket|◌̄}} (generally left unmarked), and low {{angle bracket|◌̀}}. The sentence {{lang|yo|n̄ ò lọ}} (''I didn't go'') provides examples of three syllable types:
*{{lang|yo|n̄}} — {{IPA|[ŋ̄]}} &mdash; ''I''
*{{lang|yo|ò}} &mdash; {{IPA|[ò]}} — ''not'' (negation)
*{{lang|yo|lọ}} &mdash; {{IPA|[lɔ̄]}} — ''to go''

=== Vowels ===
Standard Yoruba has seven oral and five nasal vowels. There are no [[diphthong]]s in Yoruba; sequences of vowels are pronounced as separate syllables. [[Dialect]]s differ in the number of vowels they have; see [[#Varieties|above]].

[[File:Yoruba vowel chart.svg|thumb|Yoruba [[vowel#Articulation|vowel]] diagram, adopted from Bamgboṣe (1969:166). Black dots mark oral vowels, while the colored regions indicate the ranges in possible quality of the nasal vowels.]]

{|class="wikitable"
! rowspan=2 | &nbsp;
! colspan=2 | Oral vowels
! colspan=2 | [[Nasal vowel]]s
|-
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
! Front
! Back
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|i}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|u}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ĩ}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ũ}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|e}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|o}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɒ|ɔ}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɛ̃}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɔ̃}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| align=center colspan=2 | {{IPA link|ä|a}}
| align=center colspan=2 | ({{IPA link|ã}})
|}

* In some cases, the phonetic realization of these vowels is noticeably different from what the symbol suggests:
** The oral {{IPA|/i/}} is close front {{IPAblink|i}}, and the nasal {{IPA|/ĩ/}} varies between close front {{IPAblink|i|ĩ}} and near-close front {{IPAblink|ɪ|ĩ̞}}.<ref name="bam166">Bamgboṣe (1969:166)</ref>
** The oral {{IPA|/u/}} is close back {{IPAblink|u}}, and the nasal {{IPA|/ũ/}} varies between close near-back {{IPAblink|u|ũ̟}}, close back {{IPAblink|u|ũ}}, near-close near-back {{IPAblink|ʊ|ũ̟˕}} and near-close back {{IPAblink|ʊ|ũ̞}}.<ref name="bam166"/>
** The oral {{IPA|/e, o/}} are close-mid {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|e}}, {{IPAplink|o}}]}}, and do not have nasal counterparts.<ref name="bam166"/>
** The oral {{IPA|/ɛ/}} is open-mid {{IPAblink|ɛ}}, and the nasal {{IPA|/ɛ̃/}} varies between mid {{IPAblink|ɛ̝|ɛ̝̃}} and open-mid {{IPAblink|ɛ|ɛ̃}}.<ref name="bam166"/>
** The oral {{IPA|/ɔ/}} is near-open {{IPAblink|ɒ|ɔ̞}}, and the nasal {{IPA|/ɔ̃/}} varies between open-mid {{IPAblink|ɔ|ɔ̃}} and near-open {{IPAblink|ɒ|ɒ̃}}.<ref name="bam166"/>
** The oral {{IPA|/a/}} is central {{IPAblink|ä}}.<ref name="bam166"/>

Nasal vowels are by default written as a vowel letter followed by {{angle bracket|n}}, thus: {{angle bracket|in}}, {{angle bracket|un}}, {{angle bracket|ẹn}}, {{angle bracket|ọn}}, {{angbr|an}}. These do not occur word-initially. 
In the standard language, {{IPA|/ɛ̃/}} occurs only in the single word ''ìyẹn'' ~ ''yẹn'' 'that'. The status of the vowel {{IPA|[ã]}} is controversial. Several authors have argued it is not phonemically contrastive.<ref>Notably, Ayọ Bamgboṣe (1966:8).</ref> Often, it is in free variation with {{IPA|[ɔ̃]}}. [[Orthography|Orthographically]], {{angbr|ọn}} is used after labial and labial-velar consonants, as in ''ìbọn'' 'gun', and {{angbr|an}} is used after non-labial consonants, as in ''dán'' 'to shine'. All vowels are nasalized after the consonant {{IPA|/m/}}, and thus there is no additional ''n'' in writing (''mi, mu, mọ''). In addition, the consonant {{IPA|/l/}} has a nasal allophone {{IPA|[n]}} before a nasal vowel (see [[#Consonants|below]]), and this is reflected in writing: ''inú'' 'inside, belly' ({{IPA|/īlṹ/}} → {{IPA|[īnṹ]}}).<ref>Abraham, in his ''Dictionary of Modern Yoruba'', deviates from this by explicitly indicating the nasality of the vowel; thus, ''inú'' is found under ''inún'', etc.</ref><ref>Sachnine Michka (1997) ''Dictionnaire usuel yorùbá&ndash;français''. Paris &ndash; Ibadan.</ref>
<!-- vowel harmony should be treated -->

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable"
!rowspan=2| &nbsp;
!rowspan=2|[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
!rowspan=2|[[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!rowspan=2|[[postalveolar consonant|Post-alv.]]/<br/>[[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
!colspan=2|[[velar consonant|Velar]]
!rowspan=2|[[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!<small>plain</small>
!<small>labial</small>
|-
![[stop consonant|Stop]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|b}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|d}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɟ}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|ɡ}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|k͡p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|ɡ͡b}}
| &nbsp;
|-
![[fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|f}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|s}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ʃ}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA link|h}}
|-
![[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]/[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|m}}
| align=center| {{IPA link|l}} ~ {{IPA link|n}}
| align=center| {{IPA link|j}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ŋ}} ~ {{IPA link|ŋ̍}}
| align=center| {{IPA link|w}}
| &nbsp;
|-
![[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɾ}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|}

The voiceless plosives {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} are slightly aspirated; in some Yoruba varieties, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} are more dental. The [[rhotic consonant]] is realized as a flap {{IPA|[ɾ]}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=George L. |url=https://archive.org/details/concisecompendiu0000camp/page/588/mode/2up |title=Concise compendium of the world's languages |last2=Campbell |first2=George L. |date=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-11392-2 |location=London; New York |pages=588}}</ref> or, in some varieties (notably Lagos Yoruba), as the [[alveolar and postalveolar approximants|alveolar approximant]] {{IPA|[ɹ]}} due to English influence. This is particularly common with Yoruba–English bilinguals.

Like many other languages of the region, Yoruba has the [[voiceless labial–velar stop|voiceless]] and [[voiced labial–velar stop]]s {{IPA|/k͡p/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ͡b/}}: {{lang|yo|pápá}} {{IPA|[k͡pák͡pá]}} 'field', ''{{lang|yo|gbogbo}}'' {{IPA|[ɡ͡bōɡ͡bō]}} 'all'.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} Notably, in Nigeria it lacks a [[voiceless bilabial stop]] {{IPA|/p/}}, apart from [[phonaesthesia]], such as [pĩpĩ] for vehicle horn sounds, and [[Marginal phonemes|marginal segments]] found in recent loanwords, such as <nowiki><pẹ́ńsù></nowiki> [k͡pɛ́ńsù~pɛ́ńsù] for "pencil".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ufomata |first=Titilayo |date=March 1991 |title=Englishization of Yoruba phonology |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1991.tb00135.x |journal=World Englishes |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=33–51 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-971X.1991.tb00135.x |issn=0883-2919|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Yoruba also lacks a [[phoneme]] {{IPA|/n/}}; the letter {{angle bracket|n}} is used for the sound in the orthography, but strictly speaking, it refers to an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/l/}} immediately preceding a nasal vowel.

There is also a [[syllabic consonant|syllabic nasal]], which forms a [[syllable#Nucleus|syllable nucleus]] by itself. When it precedes a vowel, it is a velar nasal {{IPA|[ŋ]}}: {{lang|yo|n ò lọ}} {{IPA|[ŋ ò lɔ̄]}} 'I didn't go'. In other cases, its place of articulation is [[homorganic consonants|homorganic]] with the following consonant: {{lang|yo|ó ń lọ}} {{IPA|[ó ń lɔ̄]}} 'he is going', {{lang|yo|ó ń fò}} {{IPA|[ó ḿ fò]}} 'he is jumping'.

C, Q, V, X and Z only appear in words borrowed from English or French.

=== Tone ===
Yoruba is a [[tone (linguistics)|tonal language]] with three-level tones and two or three contour tones. Every syllable must have at least one tone; a syllable containing a long vowel can have two tones<!-- this, of course, is just a more layman-friendly way of saying that the mora is the tone-bearing unit -->. Tones are marked by use of the acute accent for high tone ({{angle bracket|á}}, {{angle bracket|ń}}) and the grave accent for low tone ({{angle bracket|à}}, {{angle bracket|ǹ}}); mid is unmarked, except on syllabic nasals where it is indicated using a macron ({{angle bracket|a}}, {{angle bracket|n̄}}). Examples:
* H: ó bẹ́ [ó bɛ́] 'he jumped'; síbí [síbí]  'spoon'
* M: ó bẹ [ó bɛ̄] 'he is forward'; ara [āɾā] 'body'
* L: ó bẹ̀ [ó bɛ̀] 'he asks for pardon'; ọ̀kọ̀  [ɔ̀kɔ̀] 'spear'.
When teaching Yoruba literacy, [[solfège]] names of musical notes are used to name the tones: low is ''do'', mid is ''re'', and high is ''mi''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter-Ényì|first=Aaron|date=May 2018|title=Hooked on Sol-Fa: the do-re-mi heuristic for Yorùbá speech tones|journal=Africa|language=en|volume=88|issue=2|pages=267–290|doi=10.1017/S0001972017000912|s2cid=149643136|issn=0001-9720|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Whistled Yoruba ===
{{Listen |filename=Yoruba-whistle-language-fast.ogg|left|title=A greeting in whistled Yoruba|description={{lang|yo|ará iwájú, ɛ kú iʃɛ́ o}} "people who arrived for me, greetings at work"}}
Apart from tone's lexical and grammatical use, it is also used in other contexts such as whistling and drumming. Whistled Yoruba is used to communicate over long distances. The language is transformed as speakers talk and whistle simultaneously: consonants are devoiced or turned to [h], and all vowels are changed to [u]. However, all tones are retained without any alteration. The retention of tones enables speakers to understand the meaning of the whistled language. The Yoruba [[talking drum]], the ''dùndún'' or ''iya ilu'', which accompanies singing during festivals and important ceremonies, also uses tone.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Orie|first1=Ọlanikẹ Ọla|chapter=Yoruba and Yoruboid languages|title=Encyclopedia of Linguistics|location=Hoboken|publisher=Taylor and Francis|year=2013|pages=1200–1204|oclc=1109207232|isbn=9786610156009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Orie |first1=Ọlanikẹ Ọla|date=2012|title=Acquisition reversal : the effects of postlingual deafness in Yoruba|location=Berlin, Boston |publisher=De Gruyter |page=43 |oclc=836821267}}</ref>

=== Tonality effects and computer-coded documents ===
Written Yoruba includes [[diacritic|diacritical marks]] not available on conventional computer keyboards, requiring some adaptations. In particular, the use of the sub dots and tone marks are not represented, so many Yoruba documents simply omit them. Asubiaro Toluwase, in his 2014 paper,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Asubiaro |first=Toluwase V. |year=2014 |title=Effects of Diacritics on Web Search Engines' Performance for Retrieval of Yoruba Documents |journal=Journal of Library and Information Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.6182/jlis.2014.12(1).001 }}</ref> points out that the use of these diacritics can affect the retrieval of Yoruba documents by popular search engines. Therefore, their omission can have a significant impact on online research.

==== Assimilation and elision ====
When a word precedes another word beginning with a vowel, assimilation, or deletion ('[[elision]]') of one of the vowels often takes place.<ref>See Bamgboṣe 1965a for more details. See also Ward 1952:123–133 ('Chapter XI: Abbreviations and Elisions').</ref> Since syllables in Yoruba normally end in a vowel, and most nouns start with one, it is a widespread phenomenon, and it is absent only in slow, unnatural speech. The orthography here follows speech in that word divisions are normally not indicated in words that are contracted due to assimilation or elision: ''ra ẹja'' → ''rẹja'' 'buy fish'. Sometimes, however, authors may choose to use an inverted comma to indicate an elided vowel as in ''ní ilé'' → ''n'ílé'' 'in the house'.

Long vowels within words usually signal that a consonant has been elided word-internally. In such cases, the tone of the elided vowel is retained: ''àdìrò'' → ''ààrò'' 'hearth'; ''koríko'' → ''koóko'' 'grass'; ''òtító'' → ''òótó'' 'truth'.