Editing Adaptive management (section)

==In international development==

The concept of adaptive management is not restricted to natural resources or [[ecosystem management]], as similar concepts have been applied to [[international development]] programming.<ref>{{Cite book |doi = 10.17226/10972|isbn = 978-0-309-09191-6|title = Adaptive Management for Water Resources Project Planning|year = 2004}}</ref><ref>Rondinell, D. A. (1993) Development Projects as Policy Experiments: an adaptive approach to development administration, 2nd ed, Routledge, London and New York</ref> This has often been a recognition to the "wicked" nature of many development challenges and the limits of traditional planning processes.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1007/BF01405730|title = Dilemmas in a general theory of planning|year = 1973|last1 = Rittel|first1 = Horst W. J.|last2 = Webber|first2 = Melvin M.|journal = Policy Sciences|volume = 4|issue = 2|pages = 155–169|s2cid = 18634229}}</ref><ref>Ramalingam, B., Laric, M. and Primrose, J. (2014) 'From Best Practice to Best Fit: Understanding and Navigating Wicked Problems in International Development'. Working Paper. London: ODI</ref><ref>Head, B. and Alford, J. (2008) "Wicked Problems: The Implications for Public Management", 12th Annual Conference International Research Society for Public Management, Vol. Panel on Public Management in Practice, 26–28 March 2008, Brisbane.</ref> One of the principal changes facing international development organizations is the need to be more flexible, adaptable and focused on learning.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1109/TPC.2009.2034240|title = Adapting to Change: Becoming a Learning Organization as a Relief and Development Agency|year = 2009|last1 = Smith|first1 = S.|last2 = Young|first2 = A.|journal = IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication|volume = 52|issue = 4|pages = 329–345|s2cid = 9884915}}</ref> This is reflected in international development approaches such as Doing Development Differently, Politically Informed Programming and Problem Driven Iterative Adaptation.<ref>Andrews, M., Pritchett, L. and Woolcock, M. (2015) Doing problem driven work. Working Paper 30. Cambridge, MA: Center for International Development at [[Harvard University]].</ref><ref>Booth, D. and Unsworth, S. (2014) Politically smart, locally-led development. ODI discussion paper London: [[Overseas Development Institute]].</ref><ref>Fritz, V., Levy, B., and Ort, R. (2014) Problem-driven political economy analysis: The World Bank's experience. Washington DC: [[World Bank]].</ref>

One recent example of the use of adaptive management by international development donors is the planned Global Learning for Adaptive Management (GLAM) programme to support adaptive management in [[Department for International Development]] and [[USAID]]. The program is establishing a centre for learning about adaptive management to support the utilization and accessibility of adaptive management.<ref>Funds for NGOs. [https://www2.fundsforngos.org/economic-development/dfid-global-learning-adaptive-management-glam-programme/ "DFID: Global Learning for Adaptive Management (GLAM) Programme"]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref><ref>Oxfam [http://oxfamblogs.org/fp2p/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Adaptive-Management-LSE-Oxfam-Report_DRAFT-for-comments3.doc%C2%A0 "Adaptive Management at Oxfam"]{{dead link|date=May 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. Retrieved May 25, 2017</ref> In addition, donors have been focused on amending their own programmatic guidance to reflect the importance of learning within programs: for instance, USAID's recent focus in their ADS guidance on the importance of collaborating, learning and adapting.<ref name="USAID">USAID. [https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1870/201.pdf "ADS Chapter 201 Program Cycle Operational Policy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023195937/https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1870/201.pdf |date=2019-10-23 }}. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref><ref>USAID Learning Lab. [https://usaidlearninglab.org/faq/collaborating-learning-and-adapting-cla "CLA"]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref> This is also reflected in Department for International Development's Smart Rules that provide the operating framework for their programs including the use of evidence to inform their decisions.<ref>DFID. [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/dfid-smart-rules-better-programme-delivery "DFID Smart Rules: Better Programme Deliver"]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref> There are a variety of tools used to operationalize adaptive management in programs, such as [[learning agenda]]s and [[decision cycle]]s.<ref>[https://usaidlearninglab.org/library/knowing-when-adapt-decision-tree "Knowing When to Adapt - A Decision Tree"] Retrieved March 22, 2019</ref>

Collaborating, learning and adapting (CLA) is a concept related to the operationalizing of adaptive management in international development that describes a specific way of designing, implementing, adapting and evaluating programs.<ref>Altschuld, J. W., & Watkins, R. (2015). Needs assessment: trends and a view toward the future. New Directions for Evaluation, Number 144. Hoboken, NJ: [[John Wiley & Sons]].</ref>{{rp|85}}<ref>Janus, Steffen Soulejman. (2016). Becoming a knowledge-sharing organization: a handbook for scaling up solutions through knowledge capturing and sharing. Washington, D.C.: [[World Bank Group]]. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/25320</ref>{{rp|46}} CLA involves three concepts:
#collaborating intentionally with stakeholders to share knowledge and reduce duplication of effort,
#learning systematically by drawing on evidence from a variety of sources and taking the time to reflect on implementation, and
#adapting strategically based on applied learning. CLA practices have tangible benefits; for instance, a recent study recently found that companies "which apply more data-driven and adaptive leadership practices perform better" when examined against those which focus less on those practices.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ijpe.2015.11.013 |url=http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/27723|title=Data-driven and adaptive leadership contributing to sustainability: Global agri-food supply chains connected with emerging markets|year=2016|last1=Akhtar|first1=Pervaiz|last2=Tse|first2=Ying Kei|last3=Khan|first3=Zaheer|last4=Rao-Nicholson|first4=Rekha|journal=International Journal of Production Economics|volume=181|pages=392–401}}</ref>

CLA integrates three closely connected concepts within the organizational theory literature: namely collaborating, learning and adapting. There is evidence of the benefits of collaborating internally within an organization and externally with organizations.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://usaidlearninglab.org/library/literature-review-evidence-base-collaborating,-learning,-and-adapting|title=Literature review of the evidence base for collaborating, learning, and adapting|last=Lab|first=Learning|date=2016-08-11|work=USAID Learning Lab|access-date=2017-06-06}}</ref> Much of the production and transmission of knowledge—both [[explicit knowledge]] and [[tacit knowledge]]—occurs through collaboration.<ref>For example: Polanyi, Michael (1966), The tacit dimension. Chicago: [[University of Chicago Press]].</ref> There is evidence for the importance of collaboration among individuals and groups for innovation, knowledge production, and diffusion—for example, the benefits of staff interacting with one another and transmitting knowledge.<ref>Kelly, Kip, and Schaefer, Alan (2014). [http://www.kenan-flagler.unc.edu/~/media/Files/documents/executive-development/unc-white-paper-creating-a-collaborative-organizational-culture.pdf "Creating a collaborative organizational culture"]. UNC White Paper.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Phelps | first1 = C. | last2 = Heidl | first2 = R. | last3 = Wadhwa | first3 = A. | year = 2012 | title = Knowledge, networks, and knowledge networks: a review and research agenda | journal = Journal of Management | volume = 38 | issue = 4| pages = 1115–1166 | doi=10.1177/0149206311432640| s2cid = 7849173 }}</ref><ref>Hackman, J. R. (2002). Leading teams: setting the stage for great performances. Boston: [[Harvard Business School Press]].</ref> The importance of collaboration is closely linked to the ability of organizations to collectively learn from each other, a concept noted in the literature on [[learning organization]]s.<ref>Garvin, David A. August 1993. "[https://hbr.org/1993/07/building-a-learning-organization Building a learning organization]." [[Harvard Business Review]] 71, no. 4: 78–91.</ref><ref name="Senge">Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: the art and practice of the learning organization. New York: [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] Business.</ref><ref>Argyris, C. and Schön, D. (1978) Organizational learning: a theory of action perspective, Reading, Mass: [[Addison Wesley]].</ref>

CLA, an adaptive management practice, is being employed by implementing partners<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://usaidlearninglab.org/library-series/cla-case-2015|title=CLA Case Study 2015|work=USAID Learning Lab|access-date=2017-06-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://usaidlearninglab.org/library-series/cla-case-2016|title=CLA Case Study 2016|work=USAID Learning Lab|access-date=2017-06-06}}</ref> that receive funding from the [[federal government of the United States]],<ref>Fintrac. [http://www.fintrac.com/learning-innovation "Collaborating, Learning and Adapting"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625011244/http://www.fintrac.com/learning-innovation |date=2017-06-25 }}. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref><ref>QED Group LLC. [https://www.qedgroupllc.com/impact-stories/collaborating-learning-and-adapting/ "Impact Stories: Collaborating, Learning and Adapting: Facilitating Agile Program Success Through CLA"]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref><ref>Global Communities. (2016). M&E for "Collaboration, Learning and Adapting" in PACE. http://www.globalcommunities.org/publications/2016-M+E-CLA-PACE.pdf</ref> but it is primarily a framework for internal change efforts that aim at incorporating collaboration, learning, and adaptation within the [[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID) including its missions located around the world.<ref>USAID Learning Lab [https://usaidlearninglab.org/node/14633 "Understanding CLA"]. Retrieved June 4, 2017.</ref> CLA has been linked to a part of USAID's commitment to becoming a learning organization.<ref>OECD, 2016. Development Co-operation Peer Reviews: United States. {{doi|10.1787/9789264266971-en}}</ref> CLA represents an approach to combine strategic collaboration, continuous learning, and adaptive management.<ref>USAID Learning Lab. [https://usaidlearninglab.org/faq/collaborating-learning-and-adapting-cla "CLA"]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref> A part of integrating the CLA approach is providing tools and resources, such as the Learning Lab, to staff and partner organizations.<ref>Borgen. [http://www.borgenmagazine.com/roadmap-usaid-learning-lab/ "A Roadmap to USAID Learning Lab"]. Retrieved April 19, 2017</ref> The CLA approach is detailed for USAID staff in the recently revised program policy guidance.<ref name="USAID"/>