Editing Bible (section)

==Content and themes==
===Themes===
{{Further|Ethics in the Bible|Jewish ethics|Christian ethics}}
[[File:Creation of Light.png|thumb|''Creation of Light'' by [[Gustave Doré]].]]
The narratives, laws, wisdom sayings, parables, and unique genres of the Bible provide opportunity for discussion on most topics of concern to human beings: The role of women,<ref name="Barbara J. MacHaffie">{{cite book |last1=MacHaffie |first1=Barbara J. |title=Her Story Women in Christian Tradition |date=1992 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=978-1-4514-0402-9}}</ref>{{rp|203}} sex,{{sfn|Harper|2013|pp=1–14, 84–86, 88}} children, marriage,<ref name="Chadwick">Henry Chadwick, The Early Church, {{ISBN|978-0-14-023199-1}}</ref> neighbours,<ref name="Wayne Grudem">{{cite book |last1=Grudem |first1=Wayne |title=Christian Ethics: An Introduction to Biblical Moral Reasoning |date=2018 |publisher=Crossway |isbn=978-1-4335-4965-6}}</ref>{{rp|24}} friends, the nature of authority and the sharing of power,<ref>Praet, Danny (1992–1993). "Explaining the Christianization of the Roman Empire. Older theories and recent developments". Sacris Erudiri. Jaarboek voor Godsdienstgeschiedenis. A Journal on the Inheritance of Early and Medieval Christianity. 23: 5–119.</ref>{{rp|45–48}} animals, trees and nature,<ref name="Northcott96">{{cite book |last1=Northcott |first1=Michael S. |editor1-last=Clark |editor1-first=Stephen R. L. |title=The Environment and Christian Ethics |date=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57631-4}}</ref>{{rp|xi}} money and economics,<ref name="Hargaden">{{cite book |last1=Hargaden |first1=Kevin |title=Theological Ethics in a Neoliberal Age: Confronting the Christian Problem with Wealth |date=2018 |publisher=Wipf and Stock |isbn=978-1-5326-5500-5}}</ref>{{rp|77}} work, relationships,<ref name="Kieran Cronin">{{cite book |last1=Cronin |first1=Kieran |title=Rights and Christian ethics |date=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-41889-8 |page=223}}</ref> sorrow and despair and the nature of joy, among others.{{sfn|Gericke|2012|p=207}} Philosopher and ethicist Jaco Gericke adds: "The meaning of good and evil, the nature of right and wrong, criteria for moral discernment, valid sources of morality, the origin and acquisition of moral beliefs, the ontological status of moral norms, moral authority, cultural pluralism, [as well as] axiological and aesthetic assumptions about the nature of value and beauty. These are all implicit in the texts."{{sfn|Gericke|2012|p=210}}

However, discerning the themes of some biblical texts can be problematic.{{sfn|Mittleman|2012|pp=1, 2}} Much of the Bible is in narrative form and in general, biblical narrative refrains from any kind of direct instruction, and in some texts the author's intent is not easy to decipher.{{sfn|Barton|2007|pp=1–3}} It is left to the reader to determine good and bad, right and wrong, and the path to understanding and practice is rarely straightforward.{{sfn|Barton|2019| p=14}} God is sometimes portrayed as having a role in the plot, but more often there is little about God's reaction to events, and no mention at all of approval or disapproval of what the characters have done or failed to do.{{sfn|Barton|2019| p=40}} The writer makes no comment, and the reader is left to infer what they will.{{sfn|Barton|2019| p=40}} Jewish philosophers [[Shalom Carmy]] and [[David Shatz]] explain that the Bible "often juxtaposes contradictory ideas, without explanation or apology".{{sfn|Carmy|Shatz|2003|pp=13–14}}

The Hebrew Bible contains assumptions about the nature of knowledge, belief, truth, interpretation, understanding and cognitive processes.{{sfn|Gericke|2012|p=209}} Ethicist [[Michael V. Fox]] writes that the primary axiom of the book of Proverbs is that "the exercise of the human mind is the necessary and sufficient condition of right and successful behavior in all reaches of life".{{sfn|Fox|2007|p=78}} The Bible teaches the nature of valid arguments, the nature and power of language, and its relation to reality.{{sfn|Gericke|2012|p=210}} According to [[Alan Mittleman]], professor of Jewish philosophy, the Bible provides patterns of moral reasoning that focus on conduct and character.{{sfn|Barton|2019| p=3}}{{sfn|Mittleman|2012|p=17}}

In the biblical metaphysic, humans have free will, but it is a relative and restricted freedom.{{sfn|Brunner|2002|p=494}} Beach{{who2|date=May 2025}} says that Christian ''voluntarism'' points to the ''will'' as the core of the self, and that within human nature, "the core of who we are is defined by what we love".{{sfn|Beach|1988|pp=25–26}} Natural law is in the Wisdom literature, the Prophets, Romans 1, Acts 17, and the book of Amos (Amos 1:3–2:5), where nations other than Israel are held accountable for their ethical decisions even though they do not know the Hebrew god.{{sfn|Barton|2003|pp=48–50}} Political theorist [[Michael Walzer]] finds politics in the Hebrew Bible in covenant, law, and prophecy, which constitute an early form of ''almost'' democratic political ethics.{{sfn|Walzer|2012|p=200}} Key elements in biblical criminal justice begin with the belief in God as the source of justice and the judge of all, including those administering justice on earth.{{sfn|Souryal|2015|p=xx}}

Carmy and Shatz say the Bible "depicts the character of God, presents an account of creation, posits a metaphysics of divine providence and divine intervention, suggests a basis for morality, discusses many features of human nature, and frequently poses the notorious conundrum of how God can allow evil."{{sfn|Carmy|Shatz|2003|pp=13, 14}}

=== Hebrew Bible ===
{{Further|Hebrew Bible|Development of the Hebrew Bible canon}}
{{Tanakh}}

The authoritative Hebrew Bible is taken from the masoretic text (called the [[Leningrad Codex]]) which dates from 1008. The Hebrew Bible can therefore sometimes be referred to as the Masoretic Text.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tov |first1=Professor Emmanuel |title=The Bible and the Masoretic Text |url=https://www.thetorah.com/article/the-bible-and-the-masoretic-text |website=The Torah.com |access-date=3 July 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525004814/https://www.thetorah.com/article/the-bible-and-the-masoretic-text |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Hebrew Bible is also known by the name Tanakh ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{Script/Hebrew|תנ"ך}}). This reflects the threefold division of the Hebrew scriptures, [[Torah]] ("Teaching"), [[Nevi'im]] ("Prophets") and [[Ketuvim]] ("Writings") by using the first letters of each word.{{sfn|Metzger & Katz|2010|p=651, footnote 1}} It is not until the Babylonian Talmud ({{circa|550 BCE}}) that a listing of the contents of these three divisions of scripture are found.{{sfn|Pace|2016|p=354}}

The Tanakh was mainly written in [[Biblical Hebrew]], with some small portions (Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26, Jeremiah 10:11, Daniel 2:4–7:28)<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ezra|4:8–6:18}} and {{Bibleref2-nb|Ezra|7:12–26}}, {{Bibleverse|Jeremiah|10:11}}, {{Bibleverse|Daniel|2:4–7:28}}</ref> written in [[Biblical Aramaic]], a language which had become the ''[[lingua franca]]'' for much of the Semitic world.<ref name="Driver">{{cite web |last1=Driver |first1=Godfrey |author1-link=Sir Godfrey Driver |title=Introduction to the Old Testament |url=http://www.bible-researcher.com/driver1.html |website=www.bible-researcher.com |access-date=30 November 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091109185323/http://www.bible-researcher.com/driver1.html |archive-date=9 November 2009}}</ref>

==== Torah ====
{{Main|Torah}}
{{See also|Oral Torah}}
[[File:Köln-Tora-und-Innenansicht-Synagoge-Glockengasse-040.JPG|thumb|A [[Torah scroll]] recovered from [[Glockengasse Synagogue]] in [[Cologne]]]]
[[File:Samaritan Inscription containing portion of the Bible in nine lines of Hebrew text, currently housed in the British Museum.jpg|thumb|Samaritan Inscription containing a portion of the Bible in nine lines of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] text, currently housed in the [[British Museum]] in London]]
The Torah (תּוֹרָה) is also known as the "Five Books of [[Moses]]" or the [[Pentateuch]], meaning "five scroll-cases".{{sfn|Barnstone|2009|p=[[iarchive:isbn 9780393064933/page/647|647]]}} Traditionally these books were considered to have been [[Mosaic authorship|dictated to Moses]] by God himself.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=97}}{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=1072}} Since the 17th century, scholars have viewed the original sources as being the product of multiple anonymous authors while also allowing the possibility that Moses first assembled the separate sources.{{sfn|Nahkola|2007|pp=vii, xvi, 197, 204, 216–217}}{{sfn|Baden|2012|p=13}} There are a variety of hypotheses regarding when and how [[Composition of the Torah|the Torah was composed]],{{sfn|Greifenhagen|2003|p=206}} but there is a general consensus that it took its final form during the reign of the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]] (probably 450–350 BCE),{{sfn|Greifenhagen|2003|pp=206–207}}{{sfn|Newsom|2004|p=26}} or perhaps in the early [[Hellenistic period]] (333–164 BCE).{{sfn|Greifenhagen|2003|p=224 n. 49}}

The Hebrew names of the books are derived from the [[Incipit|first words]] in the respective texts. The Torah consists of the following five books:
* [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], ''Bereshith'' (בראשית)
* [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], ''Shemot'' (שמות)
* [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]], ''Vayikra'' (ויקרא)
* [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]], ''Bamidbar'' (במדבר)
* [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]], ''Devarim'' (דברים)

The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the [[Genesis creation narrative|creation]] (or ordering) of the world and the history of God's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's [[biblical covenant|covenant]] with the [[Patriarchs (Bible)|biblical patriarchs]] [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]] (also called [[Israel (name)|Israel]]) and Jacob's children, the "[[Children of Israel]]", especially [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]]. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of [[Ur of the Chaldees|Ur]], eventually to settle in the land of [[Canaan]], and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt.

The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of [[Moses]], who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. He leads the Children of Israel from slavery in [[ancient Egypt]] to the renewal of their covenant with God at [[Mount Sinai (Bible)|Mount Sinai]] and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation was ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.{{sfn|Rossel|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AzZlANCOIRgC&pg=PA355 355]}}

The commandments in the Torah provide the basis for [[Halakha|Jewish religious law]]. Tradition states that there are [[613 commandments]] (''taryag mitzvot'').

==== Nevi'im ====
{{Main|Nevi'im}}
Nevi'im ({{langx|he|נְבִיאִים|translit=Nəḇī'īm}}, "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim. It contains two sub-groups, the Former Prophets ({{lang|he-Latn|Nevi'im Rishonim}} {{lang|he|נביאים ראשונים|rtl=yes}}, the narrative books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter Prophets ({{lang|he-Latn|Nevi'im Aharonim}} {{lang|he|נביאים אחרונים|rtl=yes}}, the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel and the [[Twelve Minor Prophets]]).

The Nevi'im tell a story of the rise of the [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Hebrew monarchy]] and its division into two kingdoms, the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] and the [[Kingdom of Judah]], focusing on conflicts between the [[Israelites]] and other nations, and conflicts among Israelites, specifically, struggles between believers in "the {{LORD}} God"<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Kings.18:24; 1 Kings.18:37–39|multi=yes}}</ref> ([[Yahweh]]) and believers in foreign gods,{{efn|"Each king is judged either good or bad in black-and-white terms, according to whether or not he "did right" or "did evil" in the sight of the Lord. This evaluation is not reflective of the well-being of the nation, of the king's success or failure in war, or of the moral climate of the times, but rather the state of cultic worship during his reign. Those kings who shun idolatry and enact religious reforms are singled out for praise, and those who encourage pagan practices are denounced." {{harvnb|Savran|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=O4hYlvzWui8C&pg=PA146 146]}}}}{{efn|"The fight against Baal was initiated by the prophets" {{harvnb|Kaufmann|1956a|p=54}}}} and the criticism of unethical and unjust behaviour of Israelite elites and rulers;{{efn|"The immediate occasion of the rise of the new prophecy was the political and social ruin caused by the wars with Israel's northerly neighbour, Aram, which continued for more than a century. They raged intensely during the reign of Ahab, and did not end until the time of Jeroboam II (784–744). While the nation as a whole was impoverished, a few&nbsp;– apparently of the royal officialdom&nbsp;– grew wealthy as a result of the national calamity. Many of the people were compelled to sell their houses and lands, with the result that a sharp social cleavage arose: on the one hand a mass of propertyless indigents, on the other a small circle of the rich. A series of disasters struck the nation&nbsp;– drought, famine, plagues, death and captivity (Amos 4: 6–11), but the greatest disaster of all was the social disintegration due to the cleavage between the poor masses and the wealthy, dissolute upper class. The decay affected both Judah and Israel ... High minded men were appalled at this development. Was this the people whom YHWH had brought out of Egypt, to whom He had given the land and a law of justice and right? it seemed as if the land was about to be inherited by the rich, who would squander its substance in drunken revelry. it was this dissolution that brought the prophetic denunciations to white heat." {{harvnb|Kaufmann|1956b|pp=57–58}}}}{{efn|"What manner of man is the prophet? A student of philosophy who runs from the discourses of the great metaphysicians to the orations of the prophets may feel as if he were going from the realm of the sublime to an area of trivialities. Instead of dealing with the timeless issues of being and becoming, of matter and form, of definitions and demonstrations, he is thrown into orations about widows and orphans, about the corruption of judges and affairs of the market place. Instead of showing us a way through the elegant mansions of the mind, the prophets take us to the slums. The world is a proud place, full of beauty, but the prophets are scandalized, and rave as if the whole world were a slum. They make much ado about paltry things, lavishing excessive language upon trifling subjects. What if somewhere in ancient Palestine poor people have not been treated properly by the rich? .... Indeed, the sorts of crimes and even the amount of delinquency that fill the prophets of Israel with dismay do not go beyond that which we regard as normal, as typical ingredients of social dynamics. To us a single act of injustice&nbsp;– cheating in business, exploitation of the poor – is slight; to the prophets, a disaster. To us an injustice is injurious to the welfare of the people; to the prophets it is a deathblow to existence; to us an episode; to them, a catastrophe, a threat to the world." {{harvnb|Heschel|2001|pp=3–4}}}}{{efn|"Samuel is thus a work of national self-criticism. It recognizes that Israel would not have survived, either politically or culturally, without the steadying presence of a dynastic royal house. But it makes both that house and its subjects answerable to firm standards of prophetic justice&nbsp;– not those of cult prophets or professional ecstatics, but of morally upright prophetic leaders in the tradition of Moses, Joshua, Deborah, Gideon, and others ..." {{harvnb|Rosenberg|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=O4hYlvzWui8C&pg=PA141 141]}}}} in which prophets played a crucial and leading role. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], followed by the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the [[neo-Babylonian Empire]] and the destruction of the [[Solomon's Temple|Temple in Jerusalem]].

===== Former Prophets =====
The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. They contain narratives that begin immediately after the death of Moses with the divine appointment of Joshua as his successor, who then leads the people of Israel into the [[Promised Land]], and end with the release from imprisonment of the last [[Kings of Judah|king of Judah]]. Treating Samuel and Kings as single books, they cover:
* Joshua's conquest of the land of Canaan (in the [[Book of Joshua]]),
* the struggle of the people to possess the land (in the [[Book of Judges]]),
* the people's request to God to give them a king so that they can occupy the land in the face of their enemies (in the [[Books of Samuel]])
* the possession of the land under the divinely appointed kings of the [[Davidic line|House of David]], ending in conquest and foreign exile ([[Books of Kings]])

===== Latter Prophets =====
{{Further|Major prophet}}
The Latter Prophets are [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] and the [[Twelve Minor Prophets]], counted as a single book.
* [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]], ''Hoshea'' (הושע) denounces the worship of gods other than ''Yahweh'' (God), comparing Israel to a woman being unfaithful to her husband.
* [[Book of Joel|Joel]], ''Yo'el'' (יואל) includes a lament and a promise from God.
* [[Book of Amos|Amos]], ''Amos'' (עמוס) speaks of social justice, providing a basis for natural law by applying it to unbelievers and believers alike.
* [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]], ''Ovadya'' (עבדיה) addresses the judgment of Edom and restoration of Israel.
* [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]], ''Yona'' (יונה) tells of a reluctant redemption of Ninevah.
* [[Book of Micah|Micah]], ''Mikha'' (מיכה) reproaches unjust leaders, defends the rights of the poor, and looks forward to world peace.
* [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]], ''Nakhum'' (נחום) speaks of the destruction of Nineveh.
* [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]], ''Havakuk'' (חבקוק) upholds trust in God over Babylon.
* [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]], ''Tzefanya'' (צפניה) pronounces coming of judgment, survival and triumph of remnant.
* [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]], ''Khagay'' (חגי) rebuild Second Temple.
* [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]], ''Zekharya'' (זכריה) God blesses those who repent and are pure.
* [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]], ''Malakhi'' (מלאכי) corrects lax religious and social behaviour.

==== Ketuvim ====
{{Main|Ketuvim|Poetic Books}}
[[File:Bhs psalm1.png|thumb|[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] text of [[Psalms|Psalm]] 1:1–2]]
Ketuvim (in {{langx|hbo|כְּתוּבִים|translit=Kəṯūḇīm}} "writings") is the third and final section of the Tanakh. The Ketuvim are believed to have been written under the inspiration of [[Holy Spirit in Judaism|Ruach HaKodesh]] (the Holy Spirit) but with one level less authority than that of [[prophecy]].{{sfn|Henshaw|1963|p=20}}

In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing their internal parallelism, which was found early in the study of Hebrew poetry. "Stichs" are the lines that make up a verse "the parts of which lie parallel as to form and content".{{sfn|Kraus|1993|p=33}} Collectively, these three books are known as ''Sifrei Emet'' (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields ''Emet'' אמ"ת, which is also the Hebrew for "truth"). Hebrew cantillation is the manner of chanting ritual readings as they are written and notated in the Masoretic Text of the Bible. Psalms, Job and Proverbs form a group with a "special system" of accenting used only in these three books.{{sfn|Kraus|1993|p=12}}

===== The five scrolls =====
{{Further|Five Megillot}}
[[File:Egon Tschirch- Hohelied Nr. 11 (high resolution).jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Song of Songs (Egon Tschirch)|''Song of Songs (Das Hohelied Salomos), No. 11'']] by [[Egon Tschirch]], published in 1923]]
The five relatively short books of [[Song of Songs]], [[Book of Ruth]], the [[Book of Lamentations]], [[Ecclesiastes]], and [[Book of Esther]] are collectively known as the ''Hamesh Megillot''. These are the latest books collected and designated as authoritative in the Jewish canon even though they were not complete until the second century CE.{{sfn|Coogan|2009|p=5}}

===== Other books =====
[[File:Great Isaiah Scroll.jpg|thumb|The [[Isaiah scroll]], part of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], contains almost the whole [[Book of Isaiah]] and dates from the second century BCE.]]
The books of [[Book of Esther|Esther]], [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]], [[Ezra–Nehemiah|Ezra-Nehemiah]]{{Efn|Originally, Ezra and Nehemiah were one book, which were divided in later traditions.}} and [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] share a distinctive style that no other Hebrew literary text, biblical or extra-biblical, shares.{{sfn|Young|2013|p=23}} They were not written in the normal style of Hebrew of the post-exilic period. The authors of these books must have chosen to write in their own distinctive style for unknown reasons.{{sfn|Young|2013|p=24}}
* Their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e., the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion).
* The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.
* Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in the Tanakh with significant portions in [[Biblical Aramaic|Aramaic]].

===== Book order =====
The following list presents the books of Ketuvim in the order they appear in most current printed editions.
* ''Tehillim'' ([[Psalms]]) תְהִלִּים is an anthology of individual Hebrew religious hymns.
* ''Mishlei'' ([[Book of Proverbs]]) מִשְלֵי is a "collection of collections" on values, moral behaviour, the meaning of life and right conduct, and its basis in faith.
* ''Iyov'' ([[Book of Job]]) אִיּוֹב is about faith, without understanding or justifying suffering.
* ''Shir ha-Shirim'' ([[Song of Songs]]) or (Song of Solomon) שִׁיר הַשִׁירִים ([[Passover]]) is poetry about love and sex.
* ''Ruth'' ([[Book of Ruth]]) רוּת ([[Shavuot]]) tells of the Moabite woman Ruth, who decides to follow the God of the Israelites, and remains loyal to her mother-in-law, who is then rewarded.
* ''Eikha'' ([[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]) איכה ([[Ninth of Av]]) [Also called ''Kinnot'' in Hebrew.] is a collection of poetic laments for the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE.
* ''Qoheleth'' ([[Ecclesiastes]]) קהלת ([[Sukkot]]) contains wisdom sayings disagreed over by scholars. Is it positive and life-affirming, or deeply pessimistic?
* ''Ester'' ([[Book of Esther]]) אֶסְתֵר ([[Purim]]) tells of a Hebrew woman in Persia who becomes queen and thwarts a genocide of her people.
* ''Dani’el'' ([[Book of Daniel]]) דָּנִיֵּאל combines prophecy and eschatology (end times) in story of God saving Daniel just as He will save Israel.
* ''‘Ezra'' ([[Book of Ezra]]–[[Book of Nehemiah]]) עזרא tells of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile.
* ''Divrei ha-Yamim'' ([[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]]) דברי הימים contains genealogy.

The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The [[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]] ([[Bava Batra]] 14b–15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.{{sfn|Rodkinson|2008|p=53}}

One of the large scale differences between the Babylonian and the Tiberian biblical traditions is the order of the books. Isaiah is placed after Ezekiel in the Babylonian, while Chronicles opens the Ketuvim in the Tiberian, and closes it in the Babylonian.{{sfn|Phillips|2016|pp=300–301}}

The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the Tanakh to have been accepted as canonical. While the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as early as the fifth century BCE and the Former and Latter Prophets were canonized by the second century BCE, the Ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the second century CE.{{sfn|Coogan|2009|p=5}}

Evidence suggests, however, that the people of Israel were adding what would become the Ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets. As early as 132 BCE references suggest that the Ketuvim was starting to take shape, although it lacked a formal title.{{sfn|Henshaw|1963|pp=16–17}} ''[[Against Apion]]'', the writing of [[Flavius Josephus|Josephus]] in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed canon to which "... no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable..."{{sfn|Lightfoot|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=89oz-U-JJ0sC&pg=PA154 154–155]}} For an extended period after 95CE, the divine inspiration of Esther, [[the Song of Songs]], and [[Ecclesiastes]] was often under scrutiny.{{sfn|Henshaw|1963|p=17}}

=== Septuagint ===
{{Main|Septuagint|Jewish apocrypha}}{{See also|Deuterocanonical books|Biblical apocrypha}}
[[File:Codex Vaticanus (1 Esdras 1-55 to 2-5) (The S.S. Teacher's Edition-The Holy Bible).jpg|thumb|A fragment of a Septuagint: A column of [[uncial]] book from [[1 Esdras]] in the ''[[Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209|Codex Vaticanus]]'' c. 325–350&nbsp;CE, the basis of Sir [[Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton]]'s [[Greek language|Greek]] edition and [[Brenton's English Translation of the Septuagint|English translation]]]]
[[File:KJV 1769 Oxford Edition, vol. 1.djvu|page=21|thumb|The contents page in a complete 80 book [[King James Bible]], listing "The Books of the Old Testament", "The Books called Apocrypha", and "The Books of the New Testament".|link=File:KJV_1769_Oxford_Edition,_vol._1.djvu%3Fpage=21]]
The Septuagint ("the Translation of the Seventy", also called "the LXX"), is a Koine Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible begun in the late third century BCE.

As the work of translation progressed, the Septuagint expanded: the collection of prophetic writings had various [[hagiographa|hagiographical]] works incorporated into it. In addition, some newer books such as the [[Books of the Maccabees]] and the [[Sirach|Wisdom of Sirach]] were added. These are among the "apocryphal" books, (books whose authenticity is doubted). The inclusion of these texts, and the claim of some mistranslations, contributed to the Septuagint being seen as a "careless" translation and its eventual rejection as a valid Jewish scriptural text.{{sfn|Fitzmeyer|1992|p=41}}{{sfn|Marcos|2000|p=21}}{{efn| According to the Jewish Encyclopedia: "The translation, which shows at times a peculiar ignorance of Hebrew usage, was evidently made from a codex which differed widely in places from the text crystallized by the Masorah."<ref name="JewishEncyclopedia.com">{{cite web |title=Bible Translations – The Septuagint |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3269-bible-translations |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com |access-date=10 February 2012 |archive-date=15 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315222428/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3269-bible-translations |url-status=live}}</ref>}}

The apocrypha are Jewish literature, mostly of the Second Temple period (c. 550 BCE – 70 CE); they originated in Israel, Syria, Egypt or Persia; were originally written in Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek, and attempt to tell of biblical characters and themes.{{sfn|Pace|2016|pp=349–350}} Their provenance is obscure. One older theory of where they came from asserted that an "Alexandrian" canon had been accepted among the Greek-speaking Jews living there, but that theory has since been abandoned.{{sfn|Blocher|2004|p=82}} Indications are that they were not accepted when the rest of the Hebrew canon was.{{sfn|Blocher|2004|p=82}} It is clear the Apocrypha were used in New Testament times, but "they are never quoted as Scripture."{{sfn|Blocher|2004|p=86}} In modern Judaism, none of the apocryphal books are accepted as authentic and are therefore excluded from the canon. However, "the Ethiopian Jews, who are sometimes called Falashas, have an expanded canon, which includes some Apocryphal books".{{sfn|Gerber|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DygOmktEvFMC&pg=PA43 43–46]}}

The rabbis also wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging tradition of Christianity.{{efn|name="ndq"|"[...] die griechische Bibelübersetzung, die einem innerjüdischen Bedürfnis entsprang [...] [von den] Rabbinen zuerst gerühmt (.) Später jedoch, als manche ungenaue Übertragung des hebräischen Textes in der Septuaginta und Übersetzungsfehler die Grundlage für hellenistische Irrlehren abgaben, lehte man die Septuaginta ab." {{harvnb|Homolka|Jacob|Chorin|1999|loc=Bd.3|pp=43ff}}}}{{efn|"Two things, however, rendered the Septuagint unwelcome in the long run to the Jews. Its divergence from the accepted text (afterward called the Masoretic) was too evident; and it therefore could not serve as a basis for theological discussion or for homiletic interpretation. This distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had been adopted as Sacred Scripture by the new faith [Christianity] [...] In course of time it came to be the canonical Greek Bible [...] It became part of the Bible of the Christian Church."<ref name="JewishEncyclopedia.com"/>}} Finally, the [[rabbi]]s claimed a divine authority for the Hebrew language, in contrast to Aramaic or Greek – even though these languages were the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of Jews during this period (and Aramaic would eventually be given the status of a [[sacred language]] comparable to Hebrew).{{efn|Mishnah Sotah (7:2–4 and 8:1), among many others, discusses the sacredness of Hebrew, as opposed to Aramaic or Greek. This is comparable to the authority claimed for the original Arabic Koran according to Islamic teaching. As a result of this teaching, translations of the Torah into Koine Greek by early Jewish Rabbis have survived as rare fragments only.}}

==== Incorporations from Theodotion ====
The Book of Daniel is preserved in the 12-chapter Masoretic Text and in two longer Greek versions, the original Septuagint version, {{circa|100&nbsp;BCE}}, and the later [[Theodotion]] version from {{circa|second century CE}}. Both Greek texts contain three [[additions to Daniel]]: The [[Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children]]; the story of [[Susanna (Book of Daniel)|Susannah and the Elders]]; and the story of [[Bel and the Dragon]]. Theodotion's translation was so widely copied in the [[Early Christian]] church that its version of the [[Book of Daniel]] virtually superseded the Septuagint's. The priest [[Jerome]], in his preface to Daniel (407 CE), records the rejection of the Septuagint version of that book in Christian usage: "I ... wish to emphasize to the reader the fact that it was not according to the Septuagint version but according to the version of Theodotion himself that the churches publicly read Daniel."<ref>{{cite web |title=St. Jerome, Commentary on Daniel (1958) pp. 15–157 |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_daniel_02_text.htm |website=www.tertullian.org |access-date=2 February 2022 |archive-date=26 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100526033151/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_daniel_02_text.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Jerome's preface also mentions that the ''[[Hexapla]]'' had notations in it, indicating several major differences in content between the Theodotion Daniel and the earlier versions in Greek and Hebrew.

Theodotion's Daniel is closer to the surviving Hebrew Masoretic Text version, the text which is the basis for most modern translations. Theodotion's Daniel is also the one embodied in the authorized edition of the Septuagint published by [[Sixtus V]] in 1587.<ref>[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Book of Daniel|Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)]]</ref>

==== Final form ====
{{Further|Deuterocanonical books|Biblical apocrypha}}
Textual critics are now debating how to reconcile the earlier view of the Septuagint as 'careless' with content from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran, scrolls discovered at Wadi Murabba'at, Nahal Hever, and those discovered at Masada. These scrolls are 1000–1300 years older than the Leningrad text, dated to 1008 CE, which forms the basis of the Masoretic text.{{sfn|Fitzmeyer|1992|p=40}} The scrolls have confirmed much of the Masoretic text, but they have also differed from it, and many of those differences agree with the Septuagint, the Samaritan Pentateuch or the Greek Old Testament instead.{{sfn|Fitzmeyer|1992|p=41}}

Copies of some texts later declared apocryphal are also among the Qumran texts.{{sfn|Blocher|2004|p=82}} Ancient manuscripts of the book of Sirach, the "Psalms of Joshua", Tobit, and the Epistle of Jeremiah are now known to have existed in a Hebrew version.{{sfn|Fitzmeyer|1992|pp=14, 52}} The Septuagint version of some biblical books, such as the Book of Daniel and Book of Esther, are longer than those in the Jewish canon. In the Septuagint, Jeremiah is shorter than in the Masoretic text, but a shortened Hebrew Jeremiah has been found at Qumran in cave 4.{{sfn|Fitzmeyer|1992|p=41}} The scrolls of Isaiah, Exodus, Jeremiah, Daniel and Samuel exhibit striking and important textual variants from the Masoretic text.{{sfn|Fitzmeyer|1992|p=41}} The Septuagint is now seen as a careful translation of a different Hebrew form or recension (revised addition of the text) of certain books, but debate on how best to characterize these varied texts is ongoing.{{sfn|Fitzmeyer|1992|p=41}}

=== Pseudepigraphal books ===
{{Main|Jewish apocrypha|Pseudepigrapha}}{{See also|Authorship of the Bible}}
Pseudepigrapha are works whose authorship is wrongly attributed. A written work can be pseudepigraphical and not be a forgery, as forgeries are intentionally deceptive. With pseudepigrapha, authorship has been mistransmitted for any one of a number of reasons.{{sfn|Metzger|1972|p=4}} For example, the [[Gospel of Barnabas]] claims to be written by Barnabas the companion of the Apostle Paul, but both its manuscripts date from the Middle Ages. 

Apocryphal and pseudepigraphic works are not the same. Apocrypha includes all the writings claiming to be sacred that are outside the canon because they are not accepted as authentically being what they claim to be. Pseudepigrapha is a literary category of all writings whether they are canonical or apocryphal. They may or may not be authentic in every sense except a misunderstood authorship.{{sfn|Metzger|1972|p=4}}

The term "pseudepigrapha" is commonly used to describe numerous works of Jewish religious literature written from about 300 BCE to 300 CE. Not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical. (It also refers to books of the New Testament canon whose authorship is questioned.) The Old Testament pseudepigraphal works include the following:{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=vii, 197–221, 223–243}}
* [[3 Maccabees]]
* [[4 Maccabees]]
* [[Assumption of Moses]]
* Ethiopic [[Book of Enoch]] (1 Enoch)
* Slavonic [[Second Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] (2 Enoch)
* Hebrew [[3 Enoch|Book of Enoch]] (3 Enoch) (also known as "The Revelation of Metatron" or "The Book of Rabbi Ishmael the High Priest")
* [[Book of Jubilees]]
* [[Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch]] (2 Baruch)
* [[Letter of Aristeas]] (Letter to Philocrates regarding the translating of the Hebrew scriptures into Greek)
* [[Life of Adam and Eve]]
* [[Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah]]
* [[Psalms of Solomon]]
* [[Sibylline Oracles]]
* [[Greek Apocalypse of Baruch]] (3 Baruch)
* [[Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs]]

==== Book of Enoch ====
Notable pseudepigraphal works include the Books of Enoch such as [[1 Enoch]], [[Second Book of Enoch|2 Enoch]], which survives only in [[Old Church Slavonic|Old Slavonic]], and [[3 Enoch]], surviving in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] of the {{circa|fifth century|sixth century}} CE. These are ancient [[Jewish]] religious works, traditionally ascribed to the prophet [[Enoch (Biblical figure)|Enoch]], the great-grandfather of the patriarch [[Noah]]. The fragment of Enoch found among the Qumran scrolls attest to it being an ancient work.{{sfn|Stuckenbruck & Erho|2011|pp=259, 267}} The older sections (mainly in the Book of the Watchers) are estimated to date from about 300&nbsp;BCE, and the latest part (Book of Parables) was probably composed at the end of the first century BCE.{{sfn|Fahlbusch|Bromiley|2004|p=411}}

Enoch is not part of the biblical canon used by most [[Jews]], apart from [[Beta Israel]]. Most Christian denominations and traditions may accept the Books of Enoch as having some historical or theological interest or significance. Part of the Book of Enoch is quoted in the [[Epistle of Jude]] and the [[Book of Hebrews]] (parts of the New Testament), but Christian denominations generally regard the Books of Enoch as non-canonical.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Book of Enoch and The Secrets of Enoch |url=http://reluctant-messenger.com/enoch.htm |website=reluctant-messenger.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608170257/http://reluctant-messenger.com/enoch.htm |archive-date=8 June 2014}}</ref> The exceptions to this view are the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] and [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]].{{sfn|Stuckenbruck & Erho|2011|pp=259, 267}}

The Ethiopian Bible is not based on the Greek Bible, and the Ethiopian Church has a slightly different understanding of canon than other Christian traditions.{{sfn|Stuckenbruck & Erho|2011|p=261}} In Ethiopia, canon does not have the same degree of fixedness, (yet neither is it completely open).{{sfn|Stuckenbruck & Erho|2011|p=261}} Enoch has long been seen there as inspired scripture, but being scriptural and being canon are not always seen the same. The official Ethiopian canon has 81 books, but that number is reached in different ways with various lists of different books, and the book of Enoch is sometimes included and sometimes not.{{sfn|Stuckenbruck & Erho|2011|p=261}} Current evidence confirms Enoch as canonical in both Ethiopia and in Eritrea.{{sfn|Stuckenbruck & Erho|2011|pp=259, 267}}

=== Christian Bible ===
{{Main|Biblical canon|List of English Bible translations}}
{{Christianity}}
[[File:Gutenberg Bible scan.jpg|thumb|A page from the [[Gutenberg Bible]]]]
A Christian Bible is a set of books divided into the Old and New Testament that a [[Christian denomination]] has, at some point in their past or present, regarded as divinely inspired scripture by the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]].{{sfn|Johnson|2012|p=374}} The [[Early Christianity|Early Church]] primarily used the Septuagint, as it was written in Greek, the common tongue of the day, or they used the [[Targum]]s among [[Aramaic]] speakers. Modern English translations of the Old Testament section of the Christian Bible are based on the [[Masoretic Text]].{{sfn|VanderKam|Flint|2013|p=87}} The Pauline epistles and the gospels were soon added, along with other writings, as the New Testament.{{sfn|Kelly|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UivDgM0WywoC&pg=PA31 31–32]}}

==== Old Testament ====
{{Main|Old Testament}}
{{Further|Development of the Old Testament canon}}
The Old Testament has been important to the life of the Christian church from its earliest days. Bible scholar [[N. T. Wright]] says "Jesus himself was profoundly shaped by the scriptures."{{sfn|Wright|2005|p=3}} Wright adds that the earliest Christians searched those same Hebrew scriptures in their effort to understand the earthly life of Jesus. They regarded the "holy writings" of the Israelites as necessary and instructive for the Christian, as seen from Paul's words to Timothy (2 Timothy 3:15), as pointing to the Messiah, and as having reached a climactic fulfilment in Jesus generating the "[[new covenant]]" prophesied by [[Jeremiah]].<ref name="Wright">{{harvnb|Wright|2005|p=}}</ref>

The [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Old Testament of the 21st century has a 39-book canon. The number of books (although not the content) varies from the Jewish Tanakh only because of a different method of division. The term "Hebrew scriptures" is often used as being synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, since the surviving scriptures in Hebrew include only those books.

However, the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books as its Old Testament (45 if Jeremiah and Lamentations are counted as one),<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|120}}</ref> and the Eastern Orthodox Churches recognize six additional books. These additions are also included in the [[Syriac versions of the Bible]] called the ''Peshitta'' and the [[Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon|Ethiopian Bible]].{{efn|name="FUP1970"|Even though they were not placed on the same level as the canonical books, still they were useful for instruction. ... These – and others that total fourteen or fifteen altogether – are the books known as the Apocrypha. {{harvnb|Williams|1970|p=141}}}}{{efn|name="Ewert"|"English Bibles were patterned after those of the Continental Reformers by having the Apocrypha set off from the rest of the OT. Coverdale (1535) called them "Apocrypha". All English Bibles prior to 1629 contained the Apocrypha. Matthew's Bible (1537), the Great Bible (1539), the Geneva Bible (1560), the Bishop's Bible (1568), and the King James Bible (1611) contained the Apocrypha. Soon after the publication of the KJV, however, the English Bibles began to drop the Apocrypha and eventually they disappeared entirely. The first English Bible to be printed in America (1782–83) lacked the Apocrypha. In 1826 the British and Foreign Bible Society decided to no longer print them. Today the trend is in the opposite direction, and English Bibles with the Apocrypha are becoming more popular again." {{harvnb|Ewert|2010|p=104}}}}{{efn|name="Wells1911"|"Fourteen books and parts of books are considered ''Apocryphal'' by Protestants. Three of these are recognized by Roman Catholics also as ''Apocryphal''."{{harvnb|Wells|1911|p=41}}}}

Because the canon of Scripture is distinct for Jews, Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholics, and Western Protestants, the contents of each community's Apocrypha are unique, as is its usage of the term. For Jews, none of the apocryphal books are considered canonical. Catholics refer to this collection as "[[Deuterocanonical books]]" (second canon) and the Orthodox Church refers to them as "[[Anagignoskomena]]" (that which is read).{{sfn|Pace|2016|p=349}}{{Efn|[[Canon of Trent#List|the Canon of Trent]]:{{blockquote|But if anyone receive not, as sacred and canonical, the said books entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and as they are contained in the old Latin vulgate edition; and knowingly and deliberately [[contemn]] the traditions aforesaid; let him be [[anathema]].|''Decretum de Canonicis Scripturis'', Council of Trent, 8 April 1546}}}}

Books included in the Catholic, Orthodox, Greek, and Slavonic Bibles are: [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], [[Book of Judith|Judith]], the [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom of Solomon]], [[Sirach]] (or Ecclesiasticus), [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]], the [[Letter of Jeremiah]] (also called the Baruch Chapter 6), [[1 Maccabees]], [[2 Maccabees]], the [[Additions to Esther|Greek Additions to Esther]] and the [[Additions to Daniel|Greek Additions to Daniel]].{{sfn|Reinhartz|2021|p=19}}

The [[Greek Orthodox Church]], and the Slavonic churches (Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Ukraine, Russia, Serbia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia and Croatia) also add:{{sfn|Pace|2016|p=350}}
* [[3 Maccabees]]
* [[1 Esdras]]
* [[Prayer of Manasseh]]
* [[Psalm 151]]
[[2 Esdras]] (4 Esdras), which is not included in the Septuagint, does not exist in Greek, though it does exist in Latin. There is also [[4 Maccabees]] which is only accepted as canonical in the [[Georgian Orthodox Church|Georgian Church]]. It is in an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.{{sfn|Reinhartz|2021|p=20}}

The [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] also includes:
* [[Psalms 152–155|Psalms 151–155]]
* The [[Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch|Apocalypse of Baruch]]
* [[2 Baruch#The Letter of Baruch|The Letter of Baruch]]{{sfn|McDonald|2021|p=43}}

The [[Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon|Ethiopian Old Testament Canon]] uses [[Book of Enoch|Enoch]] and [[Jubilees]] (that only survived in Ge'ez), [[Meqabyan|1–3 Meqabyan]], [[1 Esdras|Greek Ezra]], [[2 Esdras]], and Psalm 151.{{efn|name="Wells1911"}}{{efn|name="FUP1970"}}

The [[Revised Common Lectionary]] of the [[Lutheran Church]], [[Moravian Church]], [[Reformed Church]]es, [[Anglican Church]] and [[Methodist Church]] uses the apocryphal books liturgically, with alternative Old Testament readings available.{{efn|"In all places where a reading from the deuterocanonical books (The Apocrypha) is listed, an alternate reading from the canonical Scriptures has also been provided."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.commontexts.org/rcl/rcl_introduction_web.pdf |title=The Revised Common Lectionary |year=1992 |publisher=Consultation on Common Texts |access-date=19 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701230910/http://www.commontexts.org/rcl/RCL_Introduction_Web.pdf |archive-date=1 July 2015}}</ref>}} Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Lutheran Church and Anglican Church include the fourteen books of the Apocrypha, many of which are the deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus [[1 Esdras]], [[2 Esdras]] and the [[Prayer of Manasseh]], which were in the Vulgate appendix.{{sfn|Campbell|2000|pp=336–337}}

The [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox]] Churches use most of the books of the Septuagint, while [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches usually do not. After the [[Protestant Reformation]], many Protestant Bibles began to follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called ''[[apocrypha]]l''. The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the [[King James Version]] of the Bible, the basis for the [[Revised Standard Version]].<ref>{{cite web |title=NETS: Electronic Edition |url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/ |publisher=Ccat.sas.upenn.edu |date=11 February 2011 |access-date=13 August 2012 |archive-date=29 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110729150550/http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="toccolours" style="width:75%; margin:auto; clear:center; text-align:left; font-size:85%;" cellspacing="0"
|- style="vertical-align:bottom; font-weight:bold;"
| style="border-bottom:2px groove #aaa; "| The Orthodox <br />Old Testament{{sfn|McLay|2003|pp=3–4}}{{efn|The canon of the original Old Greek LXX is disputed. This table reflects the canon of the Old Testament as used currently in Orthodoxy.}}
| style="border-bottom:2px groove #aaa; "|Greek-based<br /> name
| style="border-bottom:2px groove #aaa; "|Conventional<br /> English name
|-
!colspan=3|Law
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Γένεσις}} || Génesis || Genesis
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἔξοδος}} || Éxodos || Exodus
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Λευϊτικόν}} || Leuitikón || Leviticus
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἀριθμοί}} || Arithmoí || Numbers
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Δευτερονόμιον}} || Deuteronómion || Deuteronomy
|-
!colspan=3|History
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἰησοῦς Nαυῆ}} || Iêsous Nauê || Joshua
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Κριταί}} || Kritaí || Judges
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ῥούθ}} || Roúth || Ruth
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Βασιλειῶν Αʹ{{efn|{{lang|grc|Βασιλειῶν}} (Basileiōn) is the genitive plural of {{lang|grc|Βασιλεῖα}} (Basileia).}}}} || I Basileiōn || I Samuel
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Βασιλειῶν Βʹ}} || II Basileiōn || II Samuel
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Βασιλειῶν Γʹ}} || III Basileiōn || I Kings
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Βασιλειῶν Δʹ}} || IV Basileiōn || II Kings
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Παραλειπομένων Αʹ}} || I Paraleipomenon{{efn|That is, ''Things set aside'' from {{lang|grc|Ἔσδρας Αʹ}}.}} || I Chronicles
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Παραλειπομένων Βʹ}} || II Paraleipomenon || II Chronicles
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἔσδρας Αʹ}} || I Esdras || 1 Esdras
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἔσδρας Βʹ}} || II Esdras || Ezra–Nehemiah
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Τωβίτ}}{{efn|Also called Τωβείτ or Τωβίθ in some sources.}} || Tōbit || Tobit or Tobias
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἰουδίθ}} || Ioudith || Judith
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἐσθήρ}} || Esther || Esther with additions
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Μακκαβαίων Αʹ}} || [[I Maccabees|I Makkabaion]] || 1 Maccabees
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Μακκαβαίων Βʹ}} || [[II Maccabees|II Makkabaion]] || 2 Maccabees
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Μακκαβαίων Γʹ}} || [[III Maccabees|III Makkabaion]] || 3 Maccabees
|-
!colspan=3|Wisdom
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ψαλμοί}} || [[Psalms|Psalmoi]] || Psalms
|-
| style="text-indent:2em"|{{lang|grc|Ψαλμός ΡΝΑʹ}} || [[Psalm 151|Psalmos 151]] || Psalm 151
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Προσευχὴ Μανάσση}} || [[Prayer of Manasseh|Proseuchē Manassē]] || Prayer of Manasseh
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἰώβ}} || Iōb || Job
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Παροιμίαι}} || [[Book of Proverbs|Paroimiai]] || Proverbs
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἐκκλησιαστής}} || [[Ecclesiastes|Ekklēsiastēs]] || Ecclesiastes
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἆσμα Ἀσμάτων}} || [[Song of Songs|Asma Asmatōn]]|| Song of Solomon or Canticles
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Σοφία Σαλoμῶντος}} || [[Wisdom of Solomon|Sophia Salomōntos]] || Wisdom or Wisdom of Solomon
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Σοφία Ἰησοῦ Σειράχ}} || [[Book of Sirach|Sophia Iēsou Seirach]]|| Sirach or Ecclesiasticus or Wisdom of Sirach
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ψαλμοί Σαλoμῶντος}} || [[Psalms of Solomon|Psalmoi Salomōntos]] || Psalms of Solomon{{efn|Not in Orthodox Canon, but originally included in the Septuagint.<ref>{{cite web |title=NETS: Electronic Edition |url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/ |website=ccat.sas.upenn.edu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110729150550/http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/ |archive-date=29 July 2011}}</ref>}}
|-
!colspan=3|Prophets
|-
!style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Δώδεκα}} || Dōdeka (The Twelve) || Minor Prophets
|- style="text-indent:2em"
| {{lang|grc|Ὡσηέ Αʹ}} || I Osëe || Hosea
|- style="text-indent:2em"
| {{lang|grc|Ἀμώς Βʹ}} || II Amōs || Amos
|- style="text-indent:2em"
| {{lang|grc|Μιχαίας Γʹ}} || III Michaias || Micah
|- style="text-indent:2em"
| {{lang|grc|Ἰωήλ Δʹ}} || IV Ioël || Joel
|- style="text-indent:2em"
| {{lang|grc|Ὀβδίου Εʹ}}{{efn|Obdiou is genitive from "The vision ''of'' Obdias", which opens the book.}} || V Obdiou || Obadiah
|- style="text-indent:2em"
| {{lang|grc|Ἰωνᾶς Ϛ'}} || VI Ionas || Jonah
|- style="text-indent:2em"
| {{lang|grc|Ναούμ Ζʹ}} || VII Naoum || Nahum
|- style="text-indent:2em"
| {{lang|grc|Ἀμβακούμ Ηʹ}} || VIII Ambakoum || Habakkuk
|- style="text-indent:2em"
| {{lang|grc|Σοφονίας Θʹ}} || IX Sophonias || Zephaniah
|- style="text-indent:2em"
| {{lang|grc|Ἀγγαῖος Ιʹ}} || X Angaios || Haggai
|- style="text-indent:2em"
| {{lang|grc|Ζαχαρίας ΙΑʹ}} || XI Zacharias || Zachariah
|- style="text-indent:2em"
| Μαλαχίας ΙΒʹ || XII Malachias || Malachi
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἠσαΐας}} || Ēsaias || Isaiah
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἱερεμίας}} || Hieremias || Jeremiah
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Βαρούχ}} || Barouch || Baruch
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Θρῆνοι}} || Thrēnoi || Lamentations
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἐπιστολή Ιερεμίου}} || [[Letter of Jeremiah|Epistolē Ieremiou]]|| Letter of Jeremiah
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἰεζεκιήλ}} || Iezekiêl || Ezekiel
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Δανιήλ}} || Daniêl || Daniel with additions
|-
!colspan=3|Appendix
|-
| style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Μακκαβαίων Δ' Παράρτημα}} || [[IV Maccabees|IV]] [[4 Maccabees|Makkabaiōn]] Parartēma || 4 Maccabees{{efn|Originally placed after 3 Maccabees and before Psalms, but placed in an appendix of the Orthodox Canon.}}
|}

==== New Testament ====
{{Main|New Testament}}
{{See also|Development of the New Testament canon|New Testament apocrypha|Antilegomena|Language of the New Testament}}{{Further|Category:New Testament content}}
[[File:Marinus Claesz. van Reymerswaele 002.jpg|thumb|''St. Jerome in His Study'', published in 1541 by [[Marinus van Reymerswaele]]. [[Jerome]] produced a fourth-century [[Latin]] edition of the Bible, known as the Vulgate, that became the [[Catholic Church]]'s official translation.]]
The [[New Testament]] is the name given to the second portion of the Christian Bible. While some scholars assert that Aramaic was the original language of the New Testament,<ref name="Erbes">{{cite web |last1=Erbes |first1=Johann E. |title=The Aramaic New Testament: Estrangelo Script: Based on the Peshitta and Harklean Versions |url=https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1646&context=auss |website=digitalcommons.andrews.edu |publisher=American Christian Press |access-date=10 April 2022 |pages=259–260 |date=1984 |archive-date=12 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612205218/https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1646&context=auss |url-status=live }}</ref> the majority view says it was written in the vernacular form of Koine Greek. Still, there is reason to assert that it is a heavily Semitized Greek: its syntax is like conversational Greek, but its style is largely Semitic.{{sfn|Wallace|1996|pp=25–29}}{{efn|"The New Testament was written in Koine Greek, the Greek of daily conversation. The fact that from the first all the New Testament writings were written in Greek is conclusively demonstrated by their citations from the Old Testament ..." {{harvnb|Aland|Aland|1995|p=52}}}}{{efn|"How came the twenty-seven books of the New Testament to be gathered together and made authoritative Christian scripture? 1. All the New Testament books were originally written in Greek. On the face of it this may surprise us." {{harvnb|Hunter|1972|p=9}}}} Koine Greek was the [[lingua franca|common language]] of the western Roman Empire from the [[Conquests of Alexander the Great]] (335–323 BCE) until the evolution of [[Byzantine Greek]] ({{circa|600}}) while Aramaic was the language of [[Jesus]], the Apostles and the ancient Near East.<ref name="Erbes"/>{{efn|"This is the language of the New Testament. By the time of Jesus the Romans had become the dominant military and political force, but the Greek language remained the 'common language' of the eastern Mediterranean and beyond, and Greek ..." {{harvnb|Duff|Wenham|2005|p=xxv}}}}{{efn|"By far the most predominant element in the language of the New Testament is the Greek of common speech which was disseminated in the East by the Macedonian conquest, in the form which it had gradually assumed under the wider development ..." {{harvnb|Blass|Thackeray|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=akD7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}}}}{{efn|"In this short overview of the Greek language of the New Testament we will focus on those topics that are of greatest importance for the average reader, that is, those with important ..." {{harvnb|Aune|2010|p=61}}}} The term "New Testament" came into use in the second century during a controversy over whether the Hebrew Bible should be included with the Christian writings as sacred scripture.{{sfn|Barton|1998|pp=3, 4, 7}}

It is generally accepted that the New Testament writers were Jews who took the inspiration of the Old Testament for granted. This is probably stated earliest in {{Bibleverse|2Tim|3:16|9|2 Timothy 3:16}}: "All scripture is given by inspiration of God". Scholarship on how and why ancient Jewish–Christians came to create and accept new texts as equal to the established Hebrew texts has taken three forms. First, priest and biblical scholar [[John Barton (theologian)|John Barton]] writes that ancient Christians probably just continued the Jewish tradition of writing and incorporating what they believed were inspired, authoritative religious books.{{sfn|Barton|1998|p=2}} The second approach separates those various inspired writings based on a concept of "canon" which developed in the second century.{{sfn|Barton|1998|pp=3–8}} The third involves formalizing canon.{{sfn|Barton|1998|pp=8–11}} According to Barton, these differences are only differences in terminology; the ideas are reconciled if they are seen as three stages in the formation of the New Testament.{{sfn|Barton|1998|pp=11, 14–19}}

The first stage was completed remarkably early if one accepts {{ill|Albert C. Sundberg|de}}'s view that "canon" and "scripture" are separate things, with "scripture" having been recognized by ancient Christians long before "canon" was.{{sfn|Barton|1998|pp=9–11, 17–18}} Barton says [[Theodor Zahn]] concluded "there was already a Christian canon by the end of the first century", but this is not the canon of later centuries.{{sfn|Barton|1998|p=3}} Accordingly, Sundberg asserts that in the first centuries, there was no criterion for inclusion in the "sacred writings" beyond inspiration, and that no one in the first century had the idea of a closed canon.{{sfn|Barton|1998|pp=9–11}} The gospels were accepted by early believers as handed down from those Apostles who had known Jesus and been taught by him.{{sfn|Kelly|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UivDgM0WywoC&pg=PA4 4]}} Later biblical criticism has questioned the authorship and dating of the gospels.

At the end of the second century, it is widely recognized that a Christian canon similar to its modern version was asserted by the church fathers in response to the plethora of writings claiming inspiration that contradicted [[orthodoxy]]: ([[Heresy in Christianity|heresy]]).{{sfn|Barton|1998|p=7}} The third stage of development as the final canon occurred in the fourth century with a series of [[synod]]s that produced a list of texts of the canon of the Old Testament and the New Testament that are still used today. Most notably the [[Synod of Hippo]] in 393 CE and that of ''c''. 400. Jerome [[Bible translations into Latin|produced a definitive Latin edition]] of the Bible (the [[Vulgate]]), the canon of which, at the insistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. This process effectively set the New Testament canon.

New Testament books already had considerable authority in the late first and early second centuries.{{sfn|Barton|1998|p=14}} Even in its formative period, most of the books of the New Testament that were seen as scripture were already agreed upon. Linguistics scholar [[Stanley E. Porter]] says "evidence from the apocryphal non-Gospel literature is the same as that for the apocryphal Gospels{{snd}}in other words, that the text of the Greek New Testament was relatively well established and fixed by the time of the second and third centuries".{{sfn|Porter|2011|p=198}} By the time the fourth century Fathers were approving the "canon", they were doing little more than codifying what was already universally accepted.{{sfn|Barton|1998|p=15}}

The New Testament is a collection of 27 books{{sfn|Mears|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=m2Lz7iwklhAC&pg=PA439 438–439]}} of 4 different [[genres]] of Christian literature ([[Gospels]], one account of the [[Acts of the Apostles]], [[Epistles]] and an [[Apocalyptic literature|Apocalypse]]). These books can be grouped into:

The [[Gospel|Gospels]] are narratives of Jesus's last three years of life, his death and resurrection.
* [[Synoptic Gospels]]
** [[Gospel of Matthew]]
** [[Gospel of Mark]]
** [[Gospel of Luke]]
* [[Gospel of John]]

The [[Acts of the Apostles (genre)|narrative literature]] provides an account and history of the very early Apostolic age.
* [[Acts of the Apostles]]

The [[Pauline epistles]] are written to individual church groups to address problems, provide encouragement and give instruction.
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Epistle to the Romans]]
* [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]
* [[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]]
* [[Epistle to the Galatians]]
* [[Epistle to the Ephesians]]
* [[Epistle to the Philippians]]
* [[Epistle to the Colossians]]
* [[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
* [[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
{{Div col end}}

The [[pastoral epistles]] discuss the pastoral oversight of churches, Christian living, doctrine and leadership.
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[First Epistle to Timothy]]
* [[Second Epistle to Timothy]]
* [[Epistle to Titus]]
* [[Epistle to Philemon]]
* [[Epistle to the Hebrews]]
{{Div col end}}

The [[Catholic epistles]], also called the general epistles or lesser epistles.
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Epistle of James]] encourages a lifestyle consistent with faith.
* [[First Epistle of Peter]] addresses trial and suffering.
* [[Second Epistle of Peter]] more on suffering's purposes, Christology, ethics and eschatology.
* [[First Epistle of John]] covers how to discern true Christians: by their ethics, their proclamation of Jesus in the flesh, and by their love.
* [[Second Epistle of John]] warns against [[docetism]].
* [[Third Epistle of John]] encourage, strengthen and warn.
* [[Epistle of Jude]] condemns opponents.
{{Div col end}}

The [[apocalyptic literature]] (prophetical)
* [[Book of Revelation]], or the Apocalypse, predicts end time events.

Catholicism, Protestantism, and Eastern Orthodox currently have the same 27-book New Testament Canon. They are ordered differently in the [[Slavonic translations of the Bible|Slavonic tradition]], the [[Syriac versions of the Bible|Syriac]] tradition and the Ethiopian tradition.{{sfn|Flinn|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gxEONS0FFlsC&pg=PA103 103]}}

==== Canon variations ====
===== Peshitta =====
{{Main|Peshitta}}
The Peshitta ({{langx|syc|ܦܫܺܝܛܬܳܐ}} ''or'' {{lang|syc|ܦܫܝܼܛܬܵܐ}} ''{{transliteration|syc|pšīṭtā}}'') is the standard version of the Bible for churches in the [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac tradition]]. The consensus within biblical scholarship, although not universal, is that the Old Testament of the Peshitta was translated into [[Syriac language|Syriac]] from [[biblical Hebrew]], probably in the 2nd century CE, and that the New Testament of the Peshitta was translated from the Greek.{{efn|"The Peshitta Old Testament was translated directly from the original Hebrew text, and the Peshitta New Testament directly from the original Greek" {{harvnb|Brock|1988|p=[https://archive.org/stream/TheBibleInTheSyriacTradition/BrockTheBibleInTheSyriacTradition#page/n7/mode/2up 13]}}}} This New Testament, originally excluding certain [[Antilegomena|disputed books]] ([[2 Peter]], [[2 John]], [[3 John]], [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]], [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]), had become a standard by the early 5th century. The five excluded books were added in the [[Harklean Version]] (616 CE) of [[Thomas of Harqel]].{{efn|name="Bromiley1995"|"Printed editions of the Peshitta frequently contain these books in order to fill the gaps. D. Harklean Version. The Harklean version is connected with the labours of Thomas of Harqel. When thousands were fleeing Khosrou's invading armies, ..." {{harvnb|Bromiley|1995|p=976}}}}<ref name="Erbes"/>

===== Catholic Church canon =====
The canon of the Catholic Church was affirmed by the Council of Rome (382), the Synod of Hippo (393), the Council of Carthage (397), the Council of Carthage (419), the Council of Florence (1431–1449) and finally, as an article of faith, by the Council of Trent (1545–1563) establishing the canon consisting of 46 books in the Old Testament and 27 books in the New Testament for a total of 73 books in the Catholic Bible.{{sfn|Rüger|1989|p=302}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent |url=http://www.bible-researcher.com/trent1.html |website=www.bible-researcher.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805122857/http://www.bible-researcher.com/trent1.html |archive-date=5 August 2011}}</ref>{{efn|The Council of Trent confirmed the identical list/canon of sacred scriptures already anciently approved by the [[Synod of Hippo]] (Synod of 393), [[Council of Carthage (397)|Council of Carthage, 28 August 397]], and [[Council of Florence|Council of Florence, 4 February 1442]];<ref>{{cite web |title=Council of Basel 1431–45 A.D. Council Fathers |url=http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Councils/ecum17.htm |website=Papal Encyclicals |language=en |date=14 December 1431 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424112748/http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Councils/ecum17.htm |archive-date=24 April 2013}}</ref> – [[Bull of Union with the Copts]] ''seventh paragraph down''.}}

===== Ethiopian Orthodox canon =====
{{Main|Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon}}
The canon of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] is wider than the canons used by most other Christian churches. There are 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible.<ref name="Ethiopian">{{cite web |url=http://www.ethiopianorthodox.org/english/canonical/books.html |title=The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church |publisher=Ethiopianorthodox.org |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105112040/http://ethiopianorthodox.org/english/canonical/books.html |archive-date=5 November 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> In addition to the books found in the [[Septuagint]] accepted by other Orthodox Christians, the Ethiopian Old Testament Canon uses [[Book of Enoch|Enoch]] and [[Jubilees]] (ancient Jewish books that only survived in [[Ge'ez language|Ge'ez]], but are quoted in the New Testament),{{sfn|Reinhartz|2021|p=19}} [[1 Esdras|Greek Ezra]] and the [[Jewish Apocalypse of Ezra|Apocalypse of Ezra]], 3 books of [[Meqabyan]], and [[Psalm 151]] at the end of the [[Psalter]].{{efn|name="Wells1911"}}{{efn|name="FUP1970"}} The three books of Meqabyan are not to be confused with the books of Maccabees. The order of the books is somewhat different in that the Ethiopian Old Testament follows the Septuagint order for the Minor Prophets rather than the Jewish order.<ref name="Ethiopian" />

===New Testament Apocryphal books===
{{Main article|New Testament apocrypha}}
{{See also|Apocryphon}}

The New Testament apocrypha are a number of writings by early professed Christians that give accounts of [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] and his teachings, [[God in Christianity|the nature of God]], or the teachings of his [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostles]] and of their activities. Some of these writings were cited as Scripture by some early Christians, but since the fifth century a widespread consensus emerged limiting the New Testament to the [[Development of the New Testament canon|27 books of the modern canon]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Van Liere |first=Frans |date=2014 |title=An Introduction to the Medieval Bible |pages=68–69 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dwd-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA68|isbn=9780521865784 }}</ref><ref name=Ehrman2003>{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |author-link=Bart Ehrman |date=2003 |title=Lost Christianities: Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew |pages=230–231 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHDNe8KmMAIC&pg=PA230 |isbn=9780199756681 |access-date=20 May 2023 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119174747/https://books.google.com/books?id=HHDNe8KmMAIC&pg=PA230 |url-status=live }}</ref> Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Western Protestant churches do not view the New Testament apocrypha as part of the inspired Bible.<ref name=Ehrman2003/> Although some [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox]] canons to some extent have. The [[Armenian Apostolic]] church at times has included the [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]], but does not always list it with the other 27 canonical New Testament books. The New Testament of the [[Coptic Bible]], adopted by the [[Christianity in Egypt|Egyptian Church]], includes the two [[Epistles of Clement]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Canonization of Scripture {{!}} Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles |url=https://www.lacopts.org/orthodoxy/our-faith/the-holy-bible/the-canonization-of-scripture/ |access-date=2 April 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=5 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605211553/https://www.lacopts.org/orthodoxy/our-faith/the-holy-bible/the-canonization-of-scripture/ |url-status=live }}</ref>