Editing Human zoo (section)

== Around the turn of the century ==
In 1896, to increase the number of visitors, the [[Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden|Cincinnati Zoo]] invited one hundred [[Sioux]] Native Americans to establish a village at the site. The Sioux lived at the zoo for three months.<ref>[http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=685 Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080507043650/http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=685 |date=7 May 2008 }}, Ohio Historical Society.</ref>

The 1900 World's Fair presented the famous [[diorama]] living in [[Madagascar]], while the [[Colonial exhibition]]s in [[Marseille]]s (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907 and 1931) also displayed humans in cages, often nude or semi-nude. The [[Paris Colonial Exposition|1931 exhibition in Paris]] was so successful that 34 million people attended it in six months, while a smaller counter-exhibition entitled ''The Truth on the Colonies'', organized by the [[French Communist Party|Communist Party]], attracted very few visitors—in the first room, it recalled [[Albert Londres]] and [[André Gide]]'s critiques of [[unfree labour|forced labour]] in the colonies. Nomadic [[Senegal]]ese Villages were also presented.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

In 1906, [[Madison Grant]]—socialite, [[eugenics|eugenicist]], amateur [[anthropology|anthropologist]], and head of the [[New York Zoological Society]]—had [[Congo Pygmies|Congolese pygmy]] [[Ota Benga]] put on display at the Bronx Zoo in New York City alongside [[ape]]s and other animals. At the behest of Grant, the zoo director [[William Temple Hornaday|William Hornaday]] placed Benga displayed in a cage with the chimpanzees, then with an [[orangutan]] named Dohong, and a parrot, and labeled him [[Missing link (human evolution)|The Missing Link]], suggesting that in [[evolution]]ary terms Africans like Benga were closer to apes than were Europeans. It triggered protests from the city's clergymen, but the public reportedly flocked to see it.<ref name="NYTBenga" /><ref>Bradford, Phillips Verner and Blume, Harvey. ''Ota Benga: The Pygmy in the Zoo''. St. Martins Press, 1992.</ref>[[File:Ota Benga at Bronx Zoo.jpg|thumb|[[Ota Benga]], a human exhibit, in 1906. Age, 23 years. Height, 4 feet 11&nbsp;inches (150&nbsp;cm). Weight, 103 pounds (47&nbsp;kg). Brought from the Kasai River, Congo Free State, South Central Africa, by Dr. Samuel P.  Verner. Exhibited each afternoon during September. – ''according to a sign outside the primate house at the [[Bronx Zoo]], September 1906''.<ref name=NYTBenga>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C04E7D81F3EE733A25753C1A96F9C946797D6CF "Man and Monkey Show Disapproved by Clergy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508081838/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C04E7D81F3EE733A25753C1A96F9C946797D6CF |date=8 May 2016 }}, ''The New York Times'', 10 September 1906.</ref>]]

On Monday, 8 September 1906, after just two days, Hornaday decided to close the exhibition, and Benga could be found walking the zoo grounds, often followed by a crowd "howling, jeering and yelling."<ref name="nytimes" />

=== First organized backlash ===
According to ''The New York Times'', although "few expressed audible objection to the sight of a human being in a cage with monkeys as companions", controversy erupted as black clergymen in the city took great offense. "Our race, we think, is depressed enough, without exhibiting one of us with the apes", said the Reverend James H. Gordon, superintendent of the Howard Colored Orphan Asylum in Brooklyn. "We think we are worthy of being considered human beings, with souls."<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|last=Keller|first=Mitch|date=6 August 2006|title=The Scandal at the Zoo|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/06/nyregion/thecity/06zoo.html?ex=1155009600&en=c2cc9b84edc068cd&ei=5087%0A|access-date=2008-07-07|archive-date=28 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128113712/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/06/nyregion/thecity/06zoo.html?ex=1155009600&en=c2cc9b84edc068cd&ei=5087%0A|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Mayor of New York City|New York City Mayor]] [[George B. McClellan Jr.]] refused to meet with the clergymen, drawing the praise of Hornaday, who wrote to him: "When the history of the Zoological Park is written, this incident will form its most amusing passage."<ref name="nytimes" />

As the controversy continued, Hornaday remained unapologetic, insisting that his only intention was to put on an ethnological exhibition. In another letter, he said that he and Grant—who ten years later would publish the racist tract ''[[The Passing of the Great Race]]''—considered it "imperative that the society should not even seem to be dictated to" by the black clergymen.<ref name="nytimes" />
[[File:Exposition coloniale au Parc Tennoji (Osaka).png|alt=|thumb|Grand Colonial Exhibition (Meiji Memorial Takushoku Expo) at Tennoji Park, Osaka in 1913 ({{Lang|ja|明治記念拓殖博覧会（台湾土人ノ住宅及其風俗）}})]]
1903 saw one of the first widespread protests against human zoos, at the "Human Pavilion" of an [[Fifth National Industrial Exhibition|exposition in Osaka]], Japan. The exhibition of Koreans and Okinawans in "primitive" housing incurred protests from the governments of Korea and Okinawa, and a Formosan woman wearing Chinese dress angered a group of Chinese students studying abroad in Tokyo. An [[Ainu people|Ainu]] schoolteacher was made to exhibit himself in the zoo to raise money for his schoolhouse, as the Japanese government refused to pay. The fact that the schoolteacher made eloquent speeches and fundraised for his school while wearing traditional dress confused the spectators. An anonymous front-page column in a Japanese magazine condemned these examples and the "Human Pavilion" in total, calling it inhumane to exhibit people as spectacles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ziomek |first1=Kirsten L. |title=The 1903 Human Pavilion: Colonial Realities and Subaltern Subjectivities in Twentieth-Century Japan |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |year=2014 |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=493–516 |doi=10.1017/S0021911814000011 |jstor=43553298 |s2cid=162521059 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref>

=== St. Louis World's Fair ===
In 1904, over 1,100 Filipinos were displayed at the [[Louisiana Purchase Exposition|St. Louis World's Fair]] in association with the [[1904 Summer Olympics]]. Following the [[Spanish–American War|Spanish-American War]], the United States had just acquired new territories such as [[Guam]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Puerto Rico]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Jim Zwick |date=4 March 1996 |title=Remembering St. Louis, 1904: A World on Display and Bontoc Eulogy |url=http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/Bontoc.html |access-date=2007-05-25 |publisher=[[Syracuse University]] |archive-date=7 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907073242/http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/Bontoc.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The organizers of the World's Fair held "[[Anthropology Days]]" on August 12 and 13. Since the [[Exposition Universelle (1889)|1889 Paris Exposition]], human zoos, as a key feature of world's fairs, functioned as demonstrations of anthropological notions of race, progress, and civilization. These goals were followed also at the 1904 World's Fair. Fourteen hundred indigenous people from Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, East Asia, Africa, the Middle East, South America and North America were displayed in anthropological exhibits that showed them in their natural habitats. Another 1600 indigenous people displayed their culture in other areas of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (LPE), including on the fairgrounds and at the Model School, where [[American Indian boarding schools|American Indian boarding school]] students demonstrated their successful [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|assimilation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-1904-olympic-marathon-may-have-been-the-strangest-ever-14910747/|title=The 1904 Olympic Marathon May Have Been the Strangest Ever|publisher=[[Smithsonian Magazine]]|author=Karen Abbott|date=August 7, 2012}}</ref> The sporting event itself took place with the participation of about 100 paid indigenous men (no women participated in Anthropology Days, though some, notably the [[Fort Shaw Indian School]] girls basketball team, did compete in other athletic events at the LPE). Contests included "baseball throwing, shot put, running, broad jumping, weight lifting, pole climbing, and tugs-of-war before a crowd of approximately ten thousand".<ref>Parezo, N. J. (2008). p. 59.</ref> According to theorist [[Susan Brownell]], world's fairs – with their inclusion of human zoos – and the Olympics were a logical fit at this time, as they "were both linked to an underlying cultural logic that gave them a natural affinity".<ref>Brownell, Susan, ed. (2008). p. 29.</ref> Also, one of the original intentions of Anthropology Days was to create publicity for the official Olympic events.<ref>Parezo, N. J. (2008). p. 84.</ref><ref>Brownell, Susan, ed. (2008). p. 34.</ref>

While Anthropology Days were not officially part of the Olympics program, they were closely associated with each other at the time, and in history—Brownell notes that even today historians still debate as to which of the LPE events were the "real" Olympic Games.<ref name="Brownell 2008, p. 3">Brownell 2008, p. 3.</ref> Additionally, almost all of the 400 athletic events were referred to as "Olympian,"<ref name="Brownell 2008, p. 3" /> and the opening ceremony was held in May<ref name="Brownell 2008, p. 43">Brownell 2008, p. 43.</ref> with dignitaries in attendance, though the official Olympic program did not begin until July 1.<ref name="Brownell 2008, p. 43" /> Also, as previously noted, one of the original intentions of Anthropology Days was to create publicity for the official Olympic events.<ref name="Parezo 2008, p. 84">Parezo 2008, p. 84.</ref><ref>Brownell 2008, p. 34.</ref>

The exhibitions of the World's Fair inspired US military officer [[Truman Hunt]] to start his own human zoo of "[[Headhunting|Head-Hunting]] [[Igorrote]]s" in [[Brooklyn]]. Reports of questionable living conditions for its Filipino performers led the [[US Federal government]] to investigate Hunt's exhibition, and eventually shut it down after Hunt was found guilty of [[wage theft]] from the performers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hemley |first=Robin |date=2014-11-14 |title=Claire Prentice's 'Lost Tribe of Coney Island' |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/books/review/claire-prentices-lost-tribe-of-coney-island.html |access-date=2023-02-27 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

===United Kingdom and France===
Between 1 May and 31 October 1908 the Scottish National Exhibition, opened by one of Queen Victoria's grandsons, [[Prince Arthur of Connaught]], was held in Saughton Park, [[Edinburgh]]. One of the attractions was the [[Senegal]] Village with its French-speaking Senegalese residents, on show demonstrating their way of life, art and craft while living in beehive huts.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Edinburgh City Libraries|date=25 August 2015|title=Saughton's glorious summer of 1908|url=https://talesofonecity.wordpress.com/2015/08/25/saughtons-glorious-summer-of-1908/|access-date=7 June 2020|website=Tales of One City|archive-date=12 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512233517/https://talesofonecity.wordpress.com/2015/08/25/saughtons-glorious-summer-of-1908/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Saughton Park|url=https://www.scottish-places.info/features/featurefirst90783.html|access-date=7 June 2020|website=Gazetteer for Scotland|archive-date=7 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607212145/https://www.scottish-places.info/features/featurefirst90783.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1909, the infrastructure of the 1908 Scottish National Exhibition in Edinburgh was used to construct the new [[Marine Gardens]] to the coast near Edinburgh at [[Portobello, Edinburgh|Portobello]].  A group of [[Somalis|Somali]] men, women and children were shipped over to be part of the exhibition, living in thatched huts.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Freeman|first=Sarah|date=12 June 2015|title=Portobello, 99 ice creams, and Britains's last seaside heritage: the sweet taste of success|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/portobello-99-ice-creams-and-britains-lost-seaside-heritage-the-sweet-taste-of-success-10315732.html|website=The Independent|access-date=8 June 2020|archive-date=8 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608191145/https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/portobello-99-ice-creams-and-britains-lost-seaside-heritage-the-sweet-taste-of-success-10315732.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=1910 Somali Village, Edinburgh Marine Gardens, Portobello|url=https://humanzoos.net/?page_id=437|access-date=8 June 2020|website=Human Zoos|archive-date=8 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608191504/https://humanzoos.net/?page_id=437|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1925, a display at [[Belle Vue Zoo]] in Manchester, England, was entitled "Cannibals" and featured black Africans in supposedly native dress.<ref>Paul A. Rees, ''An Introduction to Zoo Biology and Management'', [[Wiley-Blackwell]], John Wiley & Sons Ltd., [[Chichester]] ([[West Sussex]]), 2011, p. 44. {{ISBN|978-1405193498}}</ref>

In 1931, around 100 other New Caledonian Kanaks were put on display at the [[Jardin d'Acclimatation]] in Paris.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thelocal.fr/20111129/1888/ |title='Human Zoos' go on show in Paris – The Local France, 29/11/2011 |newspaper=The Local France |date=29 November 2011 |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=17 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117104509/https://www.thelocal.fr/20111129/1888/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Spain ===
[[File:Vista_de_la_seccion_8;_Bellas_Artes._Exposición_de_Filipinas.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Philippines Exposition (1887)|Exposición General de las Filipinas]] in [[Madrid]] (1887).]]
Between the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, several exhibitions of non-Western people were held in Spain, following those held in other areas like the United Kingdom.<ref name="vanguardia">{{cite web|access-date=2023-10-06|date=2015-05-03|language=es|title=Macabro testimonio en fotos de los "zoos humanos" de Madrid llega a Paraguay|url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20150503/54430373371/macabro-testimonio-en-fotos-de-los-zoos-humanos-de-madrid-llega-a-paraguay.html|website=La Vanguardia}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> The first of them was held in 1887 by the [[Ministry of Overseas (Spain)|Ministry of Overseas]], which exhibited a group of between forty and fifty [[Filipino people]] (then a Spanish territory) together with local products and plants in the [[Parque del Buen Retiro, Madrid|Retiro Park in Madrid]].<ref name="vanguardia"/> For this exhibition, the [[Palacio de Cristal del Retiro]] was built, as well as its pond, which sought to recreate the "natural habitat" of the exposed people.<ref name="vanguardia"/><ref name="publico">{{cite web|access-date=2023-10-06|archive-date=11 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011134117/https://blogs.publico.es/strambotic/2018/09/zoologicos-humanos/|date=2018-09-25|language=es|title=El parque del Retiro de Madrid acogió un zoológico humano en 1887|url=https://blogs.publico.es/strambotic/2018/09/zoologicos-humanos/|website=Público}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> At least four people died during the exhibition.<ref name="publico" /> In the following years, private companies organized similar exhibitions in [[Barcelona]] and [[Madrid]], including of people who were not from Spanish territories, like the [[Asante people|Ashanti]] or the [[Inuit]]. Until 1918, exhibitions of African people were held in the [[Ronda de la Universitat, Barcelona|Ronda de la Universitat]] in Barcelona, which were later taken to other European countries.<ref name="vanguardia" /> There are also records of another exhibition in the [[Ibero-American Exposition of 1929|Ibero-American Exposition of Seville]] in 1929 and an additional one of [[Fang people]] from [[Equatorial Guinea]] in [[Valencia]] in 1942.<ref name="elpais">{{cite news|access-date=2023-10-06|last=Bono|date=2020-02-19|first=Ferran|issn=1134-6582|language=es|periodical=El País|title=Cuando España se sumó a la moda de exhibir africanos en 'zoos humanos'|url=https://elpais.com/cultura/2020/02/19/actualidad/1582122137_332623.html}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Until 1997 the "[[Negro of Banyoles]]", an embalmed African man, was exhibited in the [[Darder Museum]] in [[Girona]].<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-10-06|date=2019-03-01|language=es|title=El Negro de Banyoles fue enterrado en un país equivocado|url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20190302/46768019743/africa-negro-disecado-taxidermia-banyoles-racismo.html|website=La Vanguardia}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

=== United States (1930s) ===
By the 1930s, a new kind of human zoo appeared in America, nude shows masquerading as education. These included the [[Zoro Garden Nudist Colony]] at the Pacific International Exposition in San Diego, California (1935–36) and the Sally Rand Nude Ranch at the [[Golden Gate International Exposition]] in San Francisco (1939). The former was supposedly a real [[nudist colony]], which used hired performers instead of actual nudists. The latter featured women wearing cowboy hats, gunbelts and boots, and little else. The Golden Gate fair also featured a "Greenwich Village" show, described in the Official Guide Book as "Model artists' colony and revue theatre."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sfmuseum.org/bio/rand.html|title=Sally Rand – The Music Box and Sally Rand Nude Ranch at Treasure Island – 1939|website=sfmuseum.org|access-date=7 August 2020|archive-date=28 February 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060228234720/http://www.sfmuseum.org/bio/rand.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Ethnological expositions during Nazi Germany ===
As ethnogenic expositions were discontinued in Germany around 1931,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Human zoos: When people were the exhibits |date=3 October 2017|url=https://www.dw.com/en/human-zoos-when-people-were-the-exhibits/a-37748193|access-date=2020-12-02|publisher=Deutsche Welle|language=en-GB|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907142026/https://www.dw.com/en/human-zoos-when-people-were-the-exhibits/a-37748193|url-status=live}}</ref> there were many repercussions for the performers. Many of the people brought from their homelands to work in the exhibits had created families in Germany, and there were many children that had been born in Germany. Once they no longer worked in the zoos or for performance acts, these people were stuck living in Germany where they had no rights and were harshly discriminated against. During the rise of the Nazi party, the foreign actors in these stage shows were typically able to stay out of concentration camps because there were so few of them that the Nazis did not see them as a real threat.<ref name=":1">"'You Better Go Back to Africa'| Interview." ''"You Better Go Back to Africa"| Interview'', DW English, 18 June 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=baGXUsOKBcU.</ref> Although they were able to avoid concentration camps, they were not able to participate in German life as citizens of ethnically German origin could. The [[Hitler Youth]] did not allow children of foreign parents to participate, and adults were rejected as German soldiers.<ref name=":1" /> Many ended up working in war industry factories or foreign laborer camps.<ref name=":1" />

[[Hans Massaquoi]] in his 1999 book ''[[Destined to Witness]]'' observed a human zoo within the Hamburg zoo [[Tierpark Hagenbeck]] during the pre-Nazi Germany period, in which an African family was placed with the animals, openly laughed at, and otherwise treated rudely by the public crowd. And then they turned upon him, a fellow spectator, due to his mixed appearance. The date, according to his book, was approximately 1930.<ref>Destined to Witness, pgs. 24-25</ref>