Editing Javanese script (section)

==Letters==
===Aksara===
''Aksara'' are base letters that represent a single syllable. Javanese script has approximately 45 base ''aksara'' (letters), but not all of them are equally used. Over time, some ''aksara'' have fallen out of use, while others are only employed in specific contexts. Therefore, the ''aksara'' in Javanese script are classified into several types based on their function and usage.

==== ''Wyanjana'' ====
''Aksara wyanjana'' (ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦮꦾꦚ꧀ꦗꦤ) are consonants with an inherent vowel sound of /a/ or /ɔ/. As a descendant of the Brahmi script, Javanese script originally had 33 ''wyanjana'' characters to write the 33 consonant sounds used in Sanskrit and Kawi. Their forms can be seen as follows:{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=1-2}}{{sfn|Poerwadarminta|1930|pp=9–12}}

{|class="wikitable letters-table letters-violet"
|+ ''Aksara wyanjana''
|- 
| rowspan=2|
! colspan=2|[[unvoiced consonant|Unvoiced]]
! colspan=2|[[voiced consonant|Voiced]]
! rowspan=2|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
! rowspan=2|[[Semivowel]]
! rowspan=2|[[Sibilant]]
! rowspan=2|[[fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|-
! [[tenuis consonant|Unaspirated]]
! [[aspirated consonant|Aspirated]]
! [[tenuis consonant|Unaspirated]]
! [[aspirated consonant|Aspirated]]
|-
! scope=row | [[velar consonant|Velar]]
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏ|iso=ka}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦑ|iso=kha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦒ|iso=ga}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦓ|iso=gha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦔ|iso=ṅa}}
!
!
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲ|iso=ha/a|note={{noteTag|name=ha|group=wyanjana|may represent /ha/ or /a/ in Kawi}}}}
|- class=letters-lo
! scope=row | [[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦕ|iso=ca}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦖ|iso=cha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦗ|iso=ja}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦙ|iso=jha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦚ|iso=ña|note={{noteTag|name=ña|group=wyanjana|is romanized as ''n'' in the consonant clusters ''nc'' {{lang|jv|ꦚ꧀ꦕ}} and ''nj'' {{lang|jv|ꦚ꧀ꦗ}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/javanese.pdf|title=Javanese, Sundanese, and Madurese romanization table|author=<!--Not stated-->|date=2011|website=[[Library of Congress]]|access-date=January 2, 2025}}</ref>}}}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦪ|iso=ya}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦯ|iso=śa}}
!
|-
! scope=row | [[retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦛ|iso=ṭa}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦜ|iso=ṭha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦝ|iso=ḍa}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦞ|iso=ḍha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦟ|iso=ṇa}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦫ|iso=ra}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦰ|iso=ṣa}}
!
|-
! scope=row | [[dental consonant|Dental]]
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦠ|iso=ta}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦡ|iso=tha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦢ|iso=da}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦣ|iso=dha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦤ|iso=na}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦭ|iso=la}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦱ|iso=sa}}
!
|-
! scope=row | [[labial consonant|Labial]]
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦥ|iso=pa}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦦ|iso=pha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦧ|iso=ba}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦨ|iso=bha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦩ|iso=ma}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦮ|iso=wa}}
|
|
|}
{{noteFoot|group=wyanjana}}

===Aksara nglegéna===
ries. Modern Javanese only uses 20 consonant sounds, represented by 20 of the original 33 ''aksara wyanjana'', which are then referred to as {{langx|jv|ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦔ꧀ꦭꦼꦒꦺꦤ|aksara nglegéna|label=none}}. They are commonly arranged in the ''hanacaraka'' sequence, a [[pangram]] whose name is derived from its first five letters, similar to the word "alphabet" which comes from the first two letters of the [[Greek alphabet]], ''alpha'' and ''beta''.{{sfn|Robson|2011|pp=13-14}} This sequence has been used at least the 15th century, when the island of Java started to receive significant Islamic influence.{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=5–6}} There are numerous interpretations on the supposed philosophical and esoteric qualities of the ''hanacaraka'' sequence,{{sfn|Rochkyatmo|1996|pp=35-41}} and it is often linked to the myth of [[Aji Saka]].{{sfn|Rochkyatmo|1996|pp=8-11}}{{sfn|Rochkyatmo|1996|pp=51-58}}

{| class="wikitable letters-violet"
|+ ''Hana caraka (modern sequence)''
|-
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲ|iso=ha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦤ|iso=na}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦕ|iso=ca}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦫ|iso=ra}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏ|iso=ka}}
|{{langx|jv|{{Script|Java|ꦲꦤꦕꦫꦏ}}|hana caraka|There were (two) emissaries.}}
|-
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦢ|iso=da}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦠ|iso=ta}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦱ|iso=sa}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦮ|iso=wa}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦭ|iso=la}}
|{{langx|jv|{{Script|Java|ꦢꦠꦱꦮꦭ}}|data sawala|They began to fight.}}
|-
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦥ|iso=pa}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦣ|iso=dha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦗ|iso=ja}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦪ|iso=ya}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦚ|iso=ña}}
|{{langx|jv|{{Script|Java|ꦥꦣꦗꦪꦚ}}|padha jayanya|Their valor was equal}}
|-
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦩ|iso=ma}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦒ|iso=ga}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦧ|iso=ba}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦛ|iso=tha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦔ|iso=ṅa}}
|{{langx|jv|{{Script|Java|ꦩꦒꦧꦛꦔ}}|maga bathanga|They both fell dead.}}
|}

===Aksara murda===

Some of the remaining characters were repurposed as {{langx|jv|ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦩꦸꦂꦢ|aksara murda|label=none}}. ''Aksara murda'' are used to write the names of both respected individuals and legendary figures (for example {{langx|jv|ꦨꦶꦩ|[[Bhima|Bima]]}}) and real individuals. The use of ''murda'' differs from the use of capital letters in Latin script, in that {{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=11-13}} not every letter has a corresponding murda and if there is no ''murda'' for the first syllable of a name, a murda form can be used for whichever succeeding syllable ''does'' one. A name of great respect can be written entirely in ''murda''. In traditional writing, the application of ''murda'' was essentiall optional and not consistent. So, a name like ''Gani'' could be written as ꦒꦤꦶ (without ''murda''), ꦓꦤꦶ (with ''murda'' at the beginning), or ꦓꦟꦶ (entirely in ''murda'').
The remaining characters that are not included in ''nglegena'' or ''murda'' are ''mahaprana'' characters. ''Mahaprana'' characters have no function in modern Javanese writing and are only used in writing Sanskrit-Kawi.{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=1-2}}

{| class="wikitable letters-violet"
|+''Aksara murda'' 
|-
!Aksara murda
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦟ|iso=na}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦖ|iso=na}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦬ|iso=ca|note={{noteTag|name=ragung|group=murda|not as widely known as other murda letters.{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=1-2}}}}}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦑ|iso=ka}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦡ|iso=ta}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦯ|iso=sa}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦦ|iso=pa}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦘ|iso=nya}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦓ|iso=ga}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦨ|iso=ba}}
|}
{{noteFoot|group=murda}}

===Additional letters in loan words ===
The Javanese script includes additional letters ({{langx|jv|{{Script|Java|ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦫꦺꦏꦤ꧀}}|aksara rékan}} used to write foreign sounds.{{Sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=16-17}} Initially developed to transcribe loanwords from [[Arabic]], they were later adapted for loanwords from [[Dutch language|Dutch]], and in contemporary use, they are also used to write words from [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[English language|English]]. Most ''rékan'' characters are formed by adding the ''cecak telu'' diacritic to the character whose sound is considered closest to the foreign sound. For example, the ''rékan'' character fa (ꦥ꦳) is formed by adding the ''cecak telu'' to the ''wyanjana'' character pa (ꦥ). The combination of ''wyanjana'' and the foreign sound equivalent for each ''rékan'' may vary among writers due to the lack of a unified standard. According to Padmasusastra<ref>{{Cite book |last=Padmasusastra |url=https://www.sastra.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2677&catid=53 |title=Layang Carakan |year=1917 |page=16 |access-date=18 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914035409/https://www.sastra.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2677&catid=53 |archive-date=14 September 2022}}</ref> and Dwijasewaya,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dwijasewaya |url=https://www.sastra.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2156&catid=53 |title=Paramasastra Jawa |year=1910 |page=21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914035637/https://www.sastra.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2156&catid=53 |archive-date=14 September 2022}}</ref> there are five ''rékan'' characters: ''kha'', ''dza'', ''fa'', ''za'', and ''gha''. However, according to Hollander, there are nine.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Handleiding_bij_de_beoefening_der_Javaansche_Taal_1886.pdf&page=2|title=Handleiding bij de beoefening der Javaansche Taal en Letterkunde|first=J J de|last=Hollander|place=Leiden|year=1886|publisher=Brill|page=3}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+''Aksara rékan''
|- class=letters-violet
! Javanese
| {{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲ꦳|top=ḥa}}
| {{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏ꦳|top=kha}}
| {{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦐ|top=qa|note={{noteTag|group=aksrek|name=kasak|''ka Sasak'' was originally used only in the writing of the [[Sasak language]]}}}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦢ꦳|top=dza}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦱ꦳|top=sya}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦥ꦳|top=fa/va}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦗ꦳|top=za}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦒ꦳|top=gha}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦔ꦳|top=ʾa}}
|- class=letters-green
! Arabic
|{{letter|ch=ح}}
|{{letter|ch=خ}}
|{{letter|ch=ق}}
|{{letter|ch=ذ}}
|{{letter|ch=ش}}
|{{letter|ch=ف}}
|{{letter|ch=ز}}
|{{letter|ch=غ}}
|{{letter|ch=ع}}
|}
{{noteFoot|group=aksrek}}

=== Diacritics ===

Diacritics (''sandhangan'' ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦔꦤ꧀) are marks attached to characters to modify the inherent vowel of the respective character. Similar to the characters themselves, Javanese diacritics can also be divided into several groups depending on their function and usage. 

=== Vowels ===
''Aksara swara'' (ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦱ꧀ꦮꦫ) are characters used to write independent vowels. Javanese script has 14 vowel characters inherited from the Sanskrit writing tradition.{{sfn|Poerwadarminta|1930|pp=9–12}} Modern Javanese no longer uses the entire set of ''swara'', so now only the short vowel characters are generally taught. In modern writing, ''aksara swara'' is used to replace the ''aksara wyanjana'' ha ꦲ (whose pronunciation can be ambiguous as it serves a dual function as the phoneme /ha/ and /a/) in foreign names or terms whose pronunciation needs clarification.{{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=13-15}}

''Sandhangan swara'' (ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦮꦫ) are diacritics used to change a consonant's inherent vowel /a/ to other vowels, as shown below:{{Sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=19-24}}

{{plain row headers}}
{| class="wikitable letters-lo plain-row-headers letters-violet"
|+ ''Aksara swara'' with their ''sandhangan swara'' and examples with {{angbr|{{Script|Java|ꦲ and ꦏ}}}}{{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=19-24}}
|- 
! colspan=6 | Short
! colspan=6 | Long 
|-
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦄ|ipa=/a/}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦆ|ipa=/i/}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦈ|ipa=/u/}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦌ|ipa=/e/}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦎ|ipa=/o/}}
|
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦄꦴ|ipa=/aː/}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦇ|ipa=/iː/}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦈꦴ|ipa=/uː/}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦍ|ipa=/aj/}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦎꦴ|ipa=/au/}}
|-
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=-}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch= ꦶ|top=wulu}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦸ|top=suku}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦺ|top=taling}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦺꦴ|top=taling-tarung}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|wd=left|ch=ꦼ|top=pepet}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦴ|top=tarung}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦷ|top=wulu melik}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦹ|top=suku mendut}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦻ|top=dirga muré}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦻꦴ|top=dirga muré-tarung}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch= ꦼꦴ|top=pepet-tarung}}
|- 
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲ|note=a}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲꦶ|note=i}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲꦸ|note=u}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲꦺ|note=é}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲꦺꦴ|note=o}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲꦼ|note=e}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲꦴ|note=ā}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲꦷ|note=ī}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲꦹ|note=ū}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲꦻ|note=ai}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲꦻꦴ|note=au}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦲꦼꦴ|note=eu}}
|- 
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏ|note=ka}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦶ|note=ki}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦸ|note=ku}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦺ|note=ké}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦺꦴ|note=ko}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦼ|note=ke}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦴ|note=kā}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦷ|note=kī}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦹ|note=kū}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦻ|note=kai}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦻꦴ|note=kau}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦼꦴ|note=keu}}
|}

Just like ''aksara swara'', only short vowel diacritics are generally taught and used in contemporary Javanese, while long vowel diacritics are used in writing Sanskrit and Kawi.

''Pa cerek'' ꦉ, ''pa cerek dirgha'' ꦉꦴ, ''nga lelet'' ꦊ, and ''nga lelet raswadi'' ꦋ are [[Syllabic consonant|syllabic consonants]] that are considered vowels in Sanskrit-Kawi.<ref name="woodard">{{cite book|title=The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas|first=Roger D|last=Woodard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|page=9|isbn=978-0521684941}}</ref>{{sfn|Poerwadarminta|1930|pp=11}} When used in languages other than Sanskrit, the pronunciation of these four characters often varies. In modern Javanese, only ''pa cerek'' is pronounced /rə/ and ''nga lelet'' is pronounced /lə/. In modern teaching, these characters are often separated from ''aksara swara'' and known as ''aksara gantèn'' (replacement characters). They are used to replace every combination of ra + pepet (ꦫꦼ → ꦉ) and la + pepet (ꦭꦼ → ꦊ).{{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=20}}. ''Pa cerek dirgha'' and ''nga lelet raswadi'' are not used in modern Javanese.

==== ''Panyigeging wanda'' ====
Diacritics ({{langx|jv|ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦥꦚꦶꦒꦼꦒꦶꦁꦮꦤ꧀ꦢ|sandhangan panyigeging vanda}}) are used to close a syllable with a consonant.
{| class="wikitable letters-violet letters-lo"
|+ Panyigeging wanda
|- 
!{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch= ꦀ|top=panyangga|note=[[nasal consonant|nasal]]
{{noteTag|name=nasal|group=wanda|usually used in transcription of Balinese lontars for writing the sacred syllable ''[[om|ong]]'' {{lang|ban|ꦎꦀ}}}}}}
!{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch= ꦁ|top=cecek|note=-ng}}
!{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch= ꦂ|top=layar|note=-r}}
!{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch= ꦃ|top=wignyan|note=-h}}
!{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch= ꧀|top=pangkon|note={{noteTag|name=virama|group=wanda|used in final syllables, but not in the middle of a word.}}}}
|- 
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦀ|note=kam}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦁ|note=kang}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦂ|note=kar}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏꦃ|note=kah}}
|{{letter|l=jv|s=Java|ch=ꦏ꧀|note=k}}
|}
{{noteFoot|group=wanda}}

=== Semivowels and their diacritics ===
Consonant clusters containing a [[semivowel]] are written by adding a diacritic ({{langx|jv|{{Script|Java|ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦮꦾꦚ꧀ꦗꦤ}}|sandhangan wyanjana}}) to the base syllable.{{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=29-32}} 
{| class="wikitable letters-violet letters-lo"
|+ ''Sandhangan wyanjana''{{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=29-32}}
|- 
!{{letter|l=jv|script=Java|ch= ꦽ|note=-re-|top=keret}}
!{{letter|l=jv|script=Java|ch= ꦾ|note=-y-|top=pèngkal}}
!{{letter|l=jv|script=Java|wd=left|ch= ꦿ|note=-r-|top=cakra}}
!{{letter|l=jv|script=Java|ch= ꧀ꦭ|note=-l-|top=panjingan la}}
!{{letter|l=jv|script=Java|ch= ꧀ꦮ|note=-w-|top=gembung}}
|-
|{{letter|l=jv|script=Java|ch=ꦏꦽ|note=kre}}
|{{letter|l=jv|script=Java|ch=ꦏꦾ|note=kya}}
|{{letter|l=jv|script=Java|ch=ꦏꦿ|note=kra}}
|{{letter|l=jv|script=Java|ch=ꦏ꧀ꦭ|note=kla}}
|{{letter|l=jv|script=Java|ch=ꦏ꧀ꦮ|note=kwa}}
|}

==== ''Pasangan'' ====
The inherent vowel of each base character can be nullified using the diacritic ''pangkon''. However, the ''pangkon'' is generally not used in the middle of words or sentences. Instead, to write a closed syllable in the middle of a word or sentence, the ''pasangan'' form (ꦥꦱꦔꦤ꧀) is used. Unlike the ''pangkon'', the ''pasangan'' not only nullifies the preceding consonant but also indicates the subsequent consonant. For example, the character ''ma'' (ꦩ) followed by the ''pasangan'' form of ''pa'' (꧀ꦥ) becomes ''mpa'' (ꦩ꧀ꦥ). The ''pasangan'' forms in this table are those used in modern Javanese writing. Some characters have different ''pasangan'' forms in Sanskrit-Kawi writing.

{| class="wikitable letters-violet"
|+''Pasangan''
|-
! ha/a
! na
! ca
! ra
! ka
! da
! ta
! sa
! wa
! la
! pa
! dha
! ja
! ya
! nya
! ma
! ga
! ba
! tha 
! nga
|- class="letters-lo"
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦲ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦤ}}
|{{letter|ch=ꦕ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦫ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦏ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦢ}}
|{{letter|ch=  ꧀ꦠ}}
|{{letter|ch=  ꧀ꦱ}}
|{{letter|ch=  ꧀ꦮ}}
|{{letter|ch=  ꧀ꦭ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦥ}}
|{{letter|ch=  ꧀ꦝ}}
|{{letter|ch=  ꧀ꦗ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦪ}}
|{{letter|ch=꧀ꦚ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦩ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦒ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦧ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦛ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦔ}}
|-
|{{letter|ch=ꦟ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦖ|note={{br}}{{noteTag|group=pasangan|name=nonph|often used as part of pepadan, which does not have a phonetic function.}}}}
|{{letter|ch=  ꧀ꦬ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦑ}}
|
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦡ}}
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦯ}}
|
|
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦦ}}
|
|
|
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦘ}}
|
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦓ}}
|{{letter|ch=꧀ꦨ}}
|
|
|- class="letters-lo"
|
|
|
|
|
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦣ}}
|
|{{letter|ch=꧀ꦰ}}
|
|
|
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦞ}}
|{{letter|ch=꧀ꦙ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|{{letter|ch= ꧀ꦜ}}
|
|}
{{noteFoot|group=pasangan}}
=== Numbers ===
Javanese script has its own numerals ({{langx|jv|{{Script|Java|ꦲꦁꦏ}}|angka}}) that behave similarly to [[Arabic numeral]]s. Some of their forms closely resemble other Javanese characters. For instance, the numeral 1 {{angbr|꧑}} resembles the ''wyanjana'' character ga {{angbr|ꦒ}}, and the numeral 8 {{angbr|꧘}} resembles the ''murda'' character pa {{angbr|ꦦ}}. To avoid confusion, numerals that are used in the middle of sentences must be surrounded by ''pada pangkat'' {{angbr|{{Script|Java|꧇  ꧇}}}} or ''pada lingsa'' {{angbr|{{Script|Java|꧈ ꧈}}}}.{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=4}}{{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=44-45}} For example, ''tanggal 17 Juni'' ("the date 17 June") is written{{br}}
{{Script|Java|{{resize|120%|ꦠꦁꦒꦭ꧀{{color|deeppink|꧇}}꧑꧗{{color|deeppink|꧇}}ꦗꦸꦤꦶ}}}}{{br}}or{{br}} {{Script|Java|{{resize|120%|ꦠꦁꦒꦭ꧀{{color|deeppink|꧈}}꧑꧗{{color|deeppink|꧈}}ꦗꦸꦤꦶ}}}}.

These enclosures can be omitted when the numeral's function is clear from context, such as page numbers in the corner of a page. The forms are as follows:
{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=4}}{{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=44-45}}
{| class="wikitable letters-lo letters-violet"
|+''Angka''
|- 
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧐|top=0}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧑|top=1}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧒|top=2}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧓|top=3}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧔|top=4}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧕|top=5}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧖|top=6}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧗|top=7}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧘|top=8}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧙|top=9}}
|}

==== Punctuation ====
Traditional Javanese text is written without spaces between words (''[[scriptio continua]]'') and uses a set of punctuation marks known as ''pada'' (ꦥꦢ). To separate sentences, Javanese script employs ''pada lungsi'' (꧉) when the last syllable is open (without a ''pangkon'') but uses ''pada lingsa'' (꧈) when the last syllable is closed (using a ''pangkon''). Conversely, to separate clauses, ''pada lingsa'' (꧈) is used if the last syllable is closed, while a space is used if the last syllable is open. This punctuation system differs from the use of periods and commas in Latin script and is often not well understood by contemporary Javanese script users. 

Additionally, Javanese script lacks equivalents for [[Question mark|question marks]], [[Exclamation mark|exclamation marks]], [[Hyphen|hyphens]], mathematical symbols (including slashes), and [[Semicolon|semicolons]]. Consequently, whether a sentence in Javanese script is interrogative (question) or imperative (command) can only be inferred from the context. The various forms of ''pada'' are as follows:
{| class="wikitable letters-tall letters-violet" 
|+ Common punctuation
|-
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧈|note=lingsa}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧉|note=lungsi}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧊|note=adeg}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧋|note=adeg-adeg}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧌...꧍|note=pisélèh}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧁...꧂|note=rerenggan}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=꧇|note=pangkat}}
|{{letter|s=Java|ch=ꧏ|note=rangkap}}
|}
In modern teaching, the most commonly used punctuation marks in Javanese script are ''pada adeg-adeg'', ''pada lingsa'', and ''pada lungsi'', which function similarly to a paragraph mark (like a [[pilcrow]]), a [[comma]], and a [[full stop]], respectively. ''Pada adeg-adeg'' opens a paragraph, ''pada lingsa'' separates clauses or sentences and ''pada lungsi'' ends a sentence. Other punctuation marks include ''pada adeg'' and ''pada pisèlèh'', which are used to enclose inserts in the text, similar to [[parentheses]] or [[quotation marks]]. ''Pada pangkat'' functions similarly to a [[Colon (punctuation)|colon]]. ''Pada rangkap'' is sometimes used as a repetition marker, similar to the use of the number "2" in informal Indonesian (e.g. kata-kata ꦏꦠꦏꦠ → ꦏꦠꧏ = kata2).{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=4-5}}

Some punctuation marks, like ''rerenggan'', have no direct Latin script equivalents and are often purely decorative. They are frequently used to frame titles or sections of text, with considerable variation among writers. In correspondence, certain punctuation marks indicate the sender’s social status. ''Pada andhap'' denotes low status, ''pada madya'' denotes middle status, ''pada luhur'' denotes high status, and ''pada guru'' is neutral, without social connotations. ''Pada pancak'' is used to end a letter. However, these distinctions are generalized. The actual forms and functions of these punctuation marks are highly variable, with specific regional and personal styles.{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=4-5}}

In traditional manuscripts, some royal scribes used specific correction marks instead of crossing out errors. ''Tirta tumétès'' is found in Yogyakarta manuscripts, while ''isèn-isèn'' is found in Surakarta manuscripts.{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=5}}

==== ''Pepadan'' ====
Aside from regular punctuation, one of the distinctive features in Javanese script writing is ''pepadan'' (ꦥꦼꦥꦢꦤ꧀), a series of highly ornate verse marks.

Behrend (1996) categorizes ''pepadan'' into two general groups: small ''pada'', which are single punctuation marks, and large ''pada'', which are often composed of several marks arranged in a sequence. Small ''pada'' are used to indicate stanza breaks, typically appearing every 32 to 48 syllables depending on the meter used. Large ''pada'' mark a change in ''[[Javanese poetry|tembang]]'', or ''canto'', and usually appear every 5 to 10 pages, depending on the structure of the text.{{sfn|Behrend|1996|pp=188}} Javanese writing guides often identify three types of large pada ''purwa pada'' used at the beginning of the first ''tembang'', ''madya pada''  used at ''tembang'' transitions, and ''wasana pada'' used at the end of the text.{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=4-5}}  However, these three marks are often merged and treated as one in many Javanese texts.{{sfn|Behrend|1996|pp=190}}
{|class="wikitable letters-table letters-violet letters-lo letters-right"
|+Pepadan 
|-
|{{letter|ch=꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅|note=purwa pada}}
|{{letter|ch=꧅ ꦟ꧀ꦢꦿ ꧅|note=madya pada}}
|{{letter|ch=꧅ ꦆ ꧅|note=wasana pada}}
|}

''Pepadan'' is a visually prominent element in Javanese manuscripts and may be rendered in color or even gilded.{{sfn|Behrend|1996|pp=189-190}} In some luxurious manuscripts, the form of pepadan can even serve as a clue to the song being used; for instance, pepadan featuring wings or crow-like birds (dhandhang in Javanese) refers to the ''dhandhanggula'' tembang, while those featuring goldfish allude to the ''maskumambang''  ("gold floating in water") tembang. One of the key centers for producing manuscripts with exceptional pepadan designs was the [[scriptorium]] of [[Pakualaman]] in Yogyakarta.{{sfn|Behrend|1996|pp=190}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Naskah-naskah Skriptorium Pakualaman|first=Sri Ratna|last=Saktimulya|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|place=Jakarta|year=2016|isbn=978-6024242282}}</ref>

{{gallery
|File:Pepadan from serat jayalengkara 9r.jpg
|Pepadan from Serat, minor pada {{Script|Java|꧅}}
|File:Pepadan from babad mataram 10r.jpg
|Pepadan from Babad Mataram, minor pada {{Script|Java|꧅}}
|File:Pepadan from serat jayalengkara 24r.jpg
|Pepadan from Serat Jayalengkara, major pada {{Script|Java|꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅}}
|File:Pepadan_from_serat_selarasa_44r.jpg
|Pepadan from serat selarasa, major pada {{Script|Java|꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅}}
|File:Pepadan from jatikusuma 50v.jpg
|File:Pepadan from jatikusuma, major pada {{Script|Java|꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅}}
}}