Editing Learning (section)

=== Associative learning ===
''Associative learning'' is the process by which a person or animal learns an [[association (psychology)|association]] between two stimuli or events.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Discovery Series: Introduction to Psychology|last1=Plotnik|first1=Rod|last2=Kouyomdijan|first2=Haig|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|year=2012|isbn=978-1-111-34702-4|location=Belmont, CA|page=208}}</ref> In [[classical conditioning]], a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a reflex-eliciting stimulus until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is reinforced or punished in the presence of a stimulus becomes more or less likely to occur in the presence of that stimulus.

==== Operant conditioning ====
{{Main|Operant conditioning}}
''Operant conditioning'' is a way in which behavior can be shaped or modified according to the desires of the trainer or head individual. Operant conditioning uses the thought that living things seek pleasure and avoid pain, and that an animal or human can learn through receiving either reward or punishment at a specific time called trace conditioning. Trace conditioning is the small and ideal period of time between the subject performing the desired behavior, and receiving the positive reinforcement as a result of their performance. The reward needs to be given immediately after the completion of the wanted behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bangasser |first1=Debra A. |last2=Waxler |first2=David E. |last3=Santollo |first3=Jessica |last4=Shors |first4=Tracey J. |date=2006-08-23 |title=Trace Conditioning and the Hippocampus: The Importance of Contiguity |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=26 |issue=34 |pages=8702–8706 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1742-06.2006 |issn=0270-6474 |pmc=3289537 |pmid=16928858}}</ref>

Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning in that it shapes behavior not solely on bodily reflexes that occur naturally to a specific stimulus, but rather focuses on the shaping of wanted behavior that requires conscious thought, and ultimately requires learning.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reflex Definition & Meaning {{!}} Britannica Dictionary |url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/reflex |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

Punishment and reinforcement are the two principal ways in which operant conditioning occurs. Punishment is used to reduce unwanted behavior, and ultimately (from the learner's perspective) leads to avoidance of the punishment, not necessarily avoidance of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is not an appropriate way to increase wanted behavior for animals or humans. Punishment can be divided into two subcategories, positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishment is when an aversive aspect of life or thing is added to the subject, for this reason it is called positive punishment. For example, the parent spanking their child would be considered a positive punishment, because a spanking was added to the child. Negative punishment is considered the removal of something loved or desirable from the subject. For example, when a parent puts his child in time out, in reality, the child is losing the opportunity to be with friends, or to enjoy the freedom to do as he pleases. In this example, negative punishment is the removal of the child's desired rights to play with his friends etc.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Pryor |first=Karen |title=Don't Shoot the Dog: The New Art of Teaching and Training |date=1999-08-03 |publisher=Bantam |isbn=978-0-553-38039-2 |edition=Revised |location=New York |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last1=Chance |first1=Paul |url= |title=Learning and Behavior: Active Learning Edition |last2=Furlong |first2=Ellen |date=2022-03-16 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-357-65811-6 |edition=8th |location=Boston, MA |language=English}}</ref>

Reinforcement on the other hand is used to increase a wanted behavior either through negative reinforcement or positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is defined by removing an undesirable aspect of life, or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit as the trainer scratches his ears, which ultimately is removing his itches (undesirable aspect). Positive reinforcement is defined by adding a desirable aspect of life or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit if he receives a treat. In this example the treat was added to the dog's life.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" />

==== Classical conditioning ====
{{Main|Classical conditioning}}
The typical paradigm for ''classical conditioning'' involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a ''conditioned response''. The classic example is [[Ivan Pavlov]] and his dogs.<ref name=":1" /> Pavlov fed his dogs meat powder, which naturally made the dogs salivate—salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of bell and food, the dogs learned that the bell signaled that food was about to come, and began to salivate when they heard the bell. Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in many species. For example, it is seen in honeybees, in the [[proboscis extension reflex]] paradigm.<ref name="bitterman">{{cite journal | last1 = Bitterman | display-authors = etal | year = 1983 | title = Classical Conditioning of Proboscis Extension in Honeybees (''Apis mellifera'') | journal = J. Comp. Psychol. | volume = 97 | issue = 2| pages = 107–119 | doi=10.1037/0735-7036.97.2.107| pmid = 6872507 }}</ref> It was recently also demonstrated in garden pea plants.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Gagliano|first1=Monica|last2=Vyazovskiy|first2=Vladyslav V.|last3=Borbély|first3=Alexander A.|last4=Grimonprez|first4=Mavra|last5=Depczynski|first5=Martial|date=2016-12-02|title=Learning by Association in Plants|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|page=38427|doi=10.1038/srep38427|issn=2045-2322|pmc=5133544|pmid=27910933|bibcode=2016NatSR...638427G}}</ref>

Another influential person in the world of classical conditioning is [[John B. Watson]]. Watson's work was very influential and paved the way for [[B.F. Skinner]]'s radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on introspection. Watson's view was that the introspective method was too subjective and that we should limit the study of human development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views", in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology best as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment was "[[Little Albert]]", where he demonstrated how psychologists can account for the learning of emotion through classical conditioning principles.

==== Observational learning ====
{{Main|Observational learning}}
''Observational learning'' is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher with surroundings.

==== Imprinting ====
{{Main|Imprinting (psychology)}}
''Imprinting'' is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly birds, form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they respond to as they would to a parent. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow and form a bond if the object makes sounds.