Editing Learning theory (education) (section)

===Behavior analysis===
{{Main|Behaviorism|Applied behavior analysis}}
The term "behaviorism" was coined by American psychologist [[John B. Watson|John Watson]] (1878–1959). Watson believed the behaviorist view is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science with a goal to predict and control behavior.<ref>Phillips, D.C., Soltis, J.F., Perspectives on learning pg. 22</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Good and Brophey|title=Realistic Approach|page=155}}</ref> In an article in the ''[[Psychological Review]]'', he stated that, "Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness."<ref>Phillips, D.C. & Soltis, J.F. (2009). Perspectives on Learning (Fifth). New York: Teachers College Press. p. 22.</ref>

Methodological behaviorism is based on the theory of only explaining public events, or observable behavior. [[B.F. Skinner]] introduced another type of behaviorism called [[radical behaviorism]], or the conceptual analysis of behavior, which is based on the theory of also explaining private events; particularly, thinking and feelings. Radical behaviorism forms the conceptual piece of behavior analysis.

In behavior analysis, learning is the acquisition of a new behavior through conditioning and social learning.

====Learning and conditioning====
The three main types of conditioning and learning:
* [[Classical conditioning]], where the behavior becomes a reflex response to an antecedent stimulus.
* [[Operant conditioning]], where antecedent stimuli results from the consequences that follow the behavior through a reward (reinforcement) or a punishment.
* [[Social learning theory]], where an observation of behavior is followed by modeling.

[[Ivan Pavlov]] discovered classical conditioning. He observed that if dogs come to associate the delivery of food with a white lab coat or the ringing of a bell, they produce saliva, even when there is no sight or smell of food. Classical conditioning considers this form of learning the same, whether in dogs or in humans.<ref>{{cite book|last=Myers, David G.|author-link=Myers, David G.|title=Exploring Psychology|year=2008|publisher=Worth|location=New York, New York|page=223}}</ref> [[Operant conditioning]] reinforces this behavior with a reward or a punishment. A reward increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, a punishment decreases its likelihood.<ref>{{cite book|last=Myers|first=David G.|title=Exploring Psychology|year=2008|publisher=Worth|location=New York, New York|page=222}}</ref> Social learning theory observes behavior and is followed with modeling.

These three learning theories form the basis of [[applied behavior analysis]], the application of behavior analysis, which uses analyzed antecedents, [[functional analysis]], replacement behavior strategies, and often data collection and reinforcement to change behavior. The old practice was called behavior modification, which only used ''assumed'' antecedents and consequences to change behavior without acknowledging the conceptual analysis; analyzing the function of behavior and teaching of new behaviors that would serve the same function was never relevant in behavior modification.

Behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, and arrange the environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as behavioral objectives, [[Competency-based learning]], and skill development and training.<ref name="Smith 1999">{{cite web|last=Smith|first=M.K.|title=Learning Theory, the encyclopedia of informal education|url=http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm|publisher=the encyclopedia of informal education|access-date=6 July 2011}}</ref> Educational approaches such as Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention, [[curriculum-based measurement]], and [[direct instruction]] have emerged from this model.<ref>Kim, T and Axelrod, S. (2005): "Direct Instruction: An Educators' Guide and a Plea for Action" - ''The Behavior Analyst Today'', 6.(2), p. 111</ref>

====Transfer of learning====
Transfer of [[learning]] is the idea that what one learns in school somehow carries over to situations different from that particular time and that particular setting.<ref name="Kleibard, H. 2004 pp. 77-105">Kleibard, H. (2004). Scientific curriculum-making and the rise of social efficiency. In ''The Struggle for American Curriculum'' (pp. 77-105).</ref> Transfer was amongst the first phenomena tested in [[educational psychology]]. Edward Lee Thorndike was a pioneer in transfer research. He found that though transfer is extremely important for learning, it is a rarely occurring phenomenon. In fact, he held an experiment where he had the subjects estimate the size of a specific shape and then he would switch the shape. He found that the prior information did not help the subjects; instead it impeded their [[learning]].<ref name="Kleibard, H. 2004 pp. 77-105"/>

One explanation of why transfer does not occur often involves surface structure and deep structure. The surface structure is the way a problem is framed. The deep structure is the steps for the solution. For example, when a math story problem changes contexts from asking how much it costs to reseed a lawn to how much it costs to varnish a table, they have different surface structures, but the steps for getting the answers are the same. However, many people are more influenced by the surface structure. In reality, the surface structure is unimportant. Nonetheless, people are concerned with it because they believe that it provides background knowledge on how to do the problem. Consequently, this interferes with their understanding of the deep structure of the problem. Even if somebody tries to concentrate on the deep structure, transfer still may be unsuccessful because the deep structure is not usually obvious. Therefore, surface structure gets in the way of people's ability to see the deep structure of the problem and transfer the [[knowledge]] they have learned to come up with a solution to a new problem.<ref name="Willingham, D. T. 2009">Willingham, D. T. (2009). Why don't students like school? San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.</ref>

Current [[learning]] pedagogies focus on conveying rote [[knowledge]], independent of the context that gives it meaning{{Citation needed|date=July 2017}}. Because of this, students often struggle to transfer this stand-alone information into other aspects of their [[education]]. Students need much more than abstract concepts and self-contained [[knowledge]]; they need to be exposed to [[learning]] that is practiced in the context of authentic activity and [[culture]].<ref>Brown, John S., Allan Collins, and Paul Duguid. "Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning." Educational Researcher 18.1 (1989): 32-42. Web.</ref> Critics of situated cognition, however, would argue that by discrediting stand-alone information, the transfer of [[knowledge]] across contextual boundaries becomes impossible.<ref>[[Anna Sfard|Sfard, A.]] (1998, March). On two metaphors for [[learning]] and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 4-13.</ref> There must be a balance between situating knowledge while also grasping the deep structure of material, or the understanding of how one arrives to know such information.<ref name="Willingham, D. T. 2009"/>

Some theorists argue that transfer does not even occur at all. They believe that students transform what they have learned into the new context. They say that transfer is too much of a passive notion. They believe students, instead, transform their [[knowledge]] in an active way. Students don't simply carry over knowledge from the classroom, but they construct the knowledge in a way that they can understand it themselves. The learner changes the information they have learned to make it best adapt to the changing contexts that they use the [[knowledge]] in. This transformation process can occur when a learner feels motivated to use the knowledge—however, if the student does not find the transformation necessary, it is less likely that the knowledge will ever transform.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Larsen-Freeman |first=Diane |date=2013 |title=Transfer of Learning Transformed |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00740.x |journal=Language Learning |language=en |volume=63 |issue=s1 |pages=107–129 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00740.x |issn=1467-9922|hdl=2027.42/96651 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

====Techniques and benefits of transfer of learning====
There are many different conditions that influence transfer of learning in the classroom.<ref name="Cormier, S.M 2014">Cormier, S.M. and Hagman, J.D. eds., 2014. Transfer of learning: Contemporary research and applications. Academic Press.</ref> These conditions include features of the task, features of the learner, features of the organization and social context of the activity.<ref name="McKeough, A. 2013">McKeough, A., 2013. Teaching for transfer: Fostering generalization in learning. Routledge.</ref> The features of the task include practicing through simulations, problem-based learning, and knowledge and skills for implementing new plans.<ref name="McKeough, A. 2013"/> The features of learners include their ability to reflect on past experiences, their ability to participate in group discussions, practice skills, and participate in written discussions. All the unique features contribute to a student's ability to use transfer of learning.<ref name="Cormier, S.M 2014"/> There are structural techniques that can aid learning transfer in the classroom. These structural strategies include hugging and bridging.<ref name="Harris, S. 2008">Harris, S., Lowery-Moore, H., & Farrow, V. (2008). Extending Transfer of Learning Theory to Transformative Learning Theory: A Model for Promoting Teacher Leadership. Theory Into Practice, 47(4), 318-326. doi:10.1080/00405840802329318</ref>

Hugging uses the technique of simulating an activity to encourage reflexive learning. An example of the hugging strategy is when a student practices teaching a lesson or when a student role plays with another student. These examples encourage critical thinking that engages the student and helps them understand what they are learning—one of the goals of transfer of learning<ref name="Harris, S. 2008"/> and [[desirable difficulties]].

Bridging is when instruction encourages thinking abstractly by helping to identify connections between ideas and to analyze those connections. An example is when a teacher lets the student analyze their past test results and the way they got those results. This includes amount of study time and study strategies. Looking at their past study strategies can help them come up with strategies to improve performance. These are some of the ideas important to successful to hugging and bridging practices.<ref name="Harris, S. 2008"/>

There are many benefits of transfer of learning in the classroom. One of the main benefits is the ability to quickly learn a new task. This has many real-life applications such as language and speech processing. Transfer of learning is also very useful in teaching students to use higher cognitive thinking by applying their background knowledge to new situations.<ref>Yang, L., Hanneke, S., & Carbonell, J. A Theory of Transfer Learning with Applications to Active Learning. Carnegie Mellon University.</ref>