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Mahmud II
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===Greek War of Independence=== {{main|Greek War of Independence}} [[File:Tugra Mahmuds II.gif|thumb|The stylized signature of [[Sultan]] Mahmud II of the [[Ottoman Empire]] was written in [[Islamic calligraphy]]. It reads "Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious".]] [[File:Giuseppe Mazzola - The Attack of Ibrahim Pasha against Messolonghi.jpg|thumb|[[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]] attacks Missolonghi]] His reign also marked the first breakaway from the Ottoman Empire, with Greece [[First Hellenic Republic|declaring independence]] following a [[Greek War of Independence|rebellion]] that started in 1821. In the wake of continued unrest he had ecumenical patriarch [[Gregory V of Constantinople|Gregory V]] executed on Easter Sunday 1821 for his inability to stem the uprising.<ref>Roel Meijer et al., ''Routledge Handbook of Citizenship in the Middle East and North Africa''</ref> During the Battle of Erzurum (1821), part of the [[Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823)]], Mahmud II's superior force was routed by [[Abbas Mirza]], resulting in a Qajar Persian victory which got confirmed in the [[Treaties of Erzurum]].<ref>{{cite book |author=George Childs Kohn |title=Dictionary of Wars |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1135954949 |url={{Google books|qTDfAQAAQBAJ|page=506|plainurl=y}} |pages=506 ff}}</ref> Several years later, in 1827, the combined British, French and Russian navies defeated the Ottoman Navy at the [[Battle of Navarino]]; in the aftermath, the Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize Greece with the [[Treaty of Constantinople (1832)|Treaty of Constantinople]] in July 1832. This event, together with the [[French conquest of Algeria]], an Ottoman province (see [[Ottoman Algeria]]) in 1830, marked the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire. Non-Turkish ethnic groups living in the empire's territories, especially in Europe, started their own independence movements.
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